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VOL. II.

THE

GEOGRAPHY

STRABO.

LITERALLY TRANSLATED, WITH NOTES.

THE FIRST SIX BOOKS

BY H. C. HAMILTON, ESQ.

THE REMAINDER

BY W. FALCONER, M.A.,

LATE FELLOW OF EXETER COLLEGE, OXFORD.

IN THREE VOLUMES.

VOL. n.

LONDON :
HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN.

MDCCCLVI.

(^ NOV 2 9 1965 j^ |J

1025833

V.2-

JOHN GUILDS AND SON, BUNGAY.

STRABO'S GEOGRAPHY.

BOOK VIII.

EUROPE CONTINUED. GREECE.

SUMMABY.

The remaining parts of Macedonia are considered, and the whole of Greece ;
on this the author dwells some time on account of the great reputation
of the country. He corrects minutely, and clears up, the confused and
vague accounts respecting the cities contained therein, given by poets and
historians, and especially in the Catalogue and in many other parts of the
Poem.

CHAPTER I.

1 . After having described as much of the western parts
of Europe as is comprised within the interior and exterior
seas, and surveyed all the barbarous nations which it contains,
as far as the Don^ and a small part of Greece, [namely,
Macedonia,] 2 we propose to give an account of the remainder
of the Helladic geography. Homer was the first writer on
the subject of geography, and was followed by many others,
some of whom composed particular treatises, and entitled them
" Harbours," "Voyages," " Circuits of the Earth, "^ or gave them
some name of this kind, and these comprised the description
of the Helladic country. Some, as Ephorus and Polybius^
included in their general history a separate topography of
the continents ; others, as Posidonius and Hipparchus, intro-
duced matter relating to geography in their writings on
physical and mathematical subjects.

It is easy to form an opinion of the other writers, but the
poems of Homer require critical consideration, both because
he speaks as a poet, and because he describes things not as

' The ancient Tanais. ^ These words are interpolated. Casaubon.
^ XiyLiviQ, TrepiTrXoi, Trtpiodoi yrjg.

2 STRABO. Casatjb. 333.

they exist at present, but as they existed anciently, and the
greater part of which have been rendered obscure by time.

We must however undertake this inquiry as far as we are
able, beginning from the point where our description ended.

It ended with an account of the Epirotic and Illyrian nations
on the west and north, and of Macedonia as far as Byzantium
on the east.

After the Epirotas and lUyrii follow the Acarnanes,^ the
JEtoli, the Locri-Ozolae, then the Phocaeenses and Boeoti,
Grecian nations. Opposite to these on the other side of the
strait is Peloponnesus, which comprises the Gulf of Corinth,^
interposed between, and determining the figure of the latter,
from which it also receives its own. Next to Macedonia^
are the Thessalians,'* extending as far as the Malienses,^ and
the other nations, situated on both sides of the isthmus.

2. There are many Greek tribes, but the chief people are
equal in number to the Greek dialects with which we are
acquainted, namely, four. Of these, the Ionic is the same as
the ancient Attic ; (for lones was the former name of the in-
habitants of Attica ; from thence came the lones who settled
in Asia,^ and use the dialect now called Ionic ;) the Doric was
the same as the -^olic dialect, for all the people on the other
side of the isthmus except the Athenians, the Megareans, and
the Dorians about Parnassus, are even now called ^olians ;
rtK' ^* ^^ probable that the Dorians, from their being a small
^T^^^ nation, and occupying a most rugged country, and from want
' of intercourse [with the -^olians], no longer resemble that

people either in language or customs, and, although of the
same race, have lost all appearance of affinity. It was the
same with the Athenians, who inhabiting a rugged country
^\ ^., wTnTaTltght soil, escaped the ravages of invaders. As they
/ \*f ' always ocfvirQJgd-lhe same territory^ and-no-enemy attejn£ted_to
, ^^ ^pel fKem/nor hadanydesire to take pn,?spssioQ-i)f^ttEem^-
J^ \ se^s^on this account they~were, according to Thucydides,
w** A_ regarded as Autochthones, or an indigenous race. This was

t^^^^yS ' The territory of the Acarnanes is still called Carnia, south of the

.3'' Gulf of Arta. The rest of the countries mentioned by Strabo no longer

V retain the ancient divisions, Boeotia is the modern Livadhia. G.

2 The Gulf of Lepanto. » Makedunea.

. f ^ The ancient Thessaly is the modern Vlakea.

* The neighbourhood of the Gulf of Zeitun — the ancient Maliac Gulf.
' In Asia Minor, and founded the cities Miletus, Smyrna, Phocaea, &c.

B. Tin. c. I. § 3. GREECE. 3

probably thej-eason, although jthey were a small nation, whjL,
J^ey remained a distmcrpe.Qplfij?nth_a distiricT^JIalect.

It was not in the parts only on the other side"of thelithmus,
that the ^olian nation was powerful, but those on this side
also were formerly Cohans. They were afterwards inter-
mixed first with lonians who came from Attica, and got pos-
session of jEgialus,^ and secondly with Dorians, who under
the conduct of the Heracleidae founded Megara and many of
the cities in the Peloponnesus. The lones were soon expelled
by the Achaei, an ^olian tribe ; and there remained in Pelo-
ponnesus the two nations, the ^olic and the Doric. Those
nations then that had little intercourse with the Dorians used
the ^olian dialect. (This was the case with the Arcadians
and Eleians, the former of whom were altogether a mountain
tribe, and did not share in the partition of the Peloponnesus ;
the latter were considered as dedicated to the service of
the Olympian Jupiter, and lived for a long period in peace,
principally because they were of ^olian descent, and had
admitted into their country the army of Oxylus, about the time
of the return of the Heracleidae.^) The rest used a kind of
dialect composed of both, some of them having more, others
less, of the -^olic dialect. Even at present the inhabitants of
different cities use different dialects, but all seem to Dorize,
or use the Doric dialect, on account of the ascendency of that
nation.

Such then is the number of the Grecian nations, and thus
in general are they distinguished from each other.

I shall resume my account of them, and describe each
nation in their proper order.

3. According to Ephorus, AcarnaniaJla_the_comm^C£ment
of Greece on the west, for it is the first country which lies
contiguous to the Epirotic nations. As this author follows
the coast in his measurements, and begins from thence, con-
sidering the sea the most important guide of topographical
description, (for otherwise he might have placed the beginning
of Greece in Macedonia and Thessaly,) so ought I, observing

' The word ^gialus (AiyiaXbg) signifies sea-shore. The name was
given to this part of the Peloponnesus (afterwards called Achaia) from
the towns being situated generally along the coast. Others, however, give
a different explanation to the word.

* 1113 before the Christian era. G.

* STRABO. Casaub. 334.

the natural character of places, to keep in view the sea as a
mark by which I should direct the course of my description.

The sea coming from Sicily spreads itself on one side
towards the Corinthian Gulf, and on the other forms a large
peninsula, the Peloponnesus, united to the main-land by a
narrow isthmus.

The two largest bodies of country in Greece are that within
the isthmus, and that without the isthmus, [extending to the
mouths of the river Peneius]. That within the isthmus is how-
ever larger, and more celebrated. The Peloponnesus is, as it
were, the acropolis or citadel of all Greece ; and all Greece in
a manner holds the chief or leading position in Europe. For
independently of the fame and power of the nations which
inhabited it, the position itself of the places in it suggests
this superiority. One site succeeds another diversified with
numerous most remarkable bays, and large peninsulas. The
first of these peninsulas is the Peloponnesus, closed in by
an isthmus of forty stadia in extent. The second compre-
hends the first, and has an isthmus reaching from Pagse in
Megaris to Nisaea, which is the naval arsenal of the Megare-
ans ; the passage across the isthmus from sea to sea is 120
stadia.

The third peninsula also comprises the latter. Its isthmus
extends from the farthest recess of the Crissasan Gulf to
Thermopylae. The line supposed to be drawn between these
is about 508 stadia in length, including within it the whole
of Boeotia, and cutting Phocis and the country of the
Epicnemidii obliquely. The fourth peninsula has the isthmus
extending from the Ambracian Gulf through Mount CEta
and Traclinia to the Maliac Gulf and Thermopylae, about
800 stadia.

There is another isthmus of more than 1000 stadia reach-
ing from the same Gulf of Ambracia, and passing through
the country of the Thessalians and Macedonians to the recess
of the Thermaean Gulf.

The succession of peninsulas furnishes a convenient order
to be followed in describing the country.

We must begin from the smallest, as being also the most
famous of these peninsulas.^

^ Taking the reverse order in which these peninsulas are described,
the fifth and last contains all the rest, the fourth all but the difi'erence

B. VIII. c. II. ^ 1, 2. GREECE. THE PELOPONNESUS.

CHAPTER II.

1. The Peloponnesus resembles in figure the leaf of a plane
tree.^ Its length and breadth are nearly equal, each about
1400 stadia. The former is reckoned from west to east, that
is, from the promontory Chelonatas through Olympia and the
territory Megalopolitis to the isthmus ; the latter from south
to north, or from Maliae though Arcadia to ^gium.

The circumference, according to Polybius, exclusive of the
circuit of the bays, is 4000 stadia. Artemidorus however
adds to this 400 stadia, and if we include the measure of the
bays, it exceeds 5600 stadia. We have already said that the
isthmus at the road where they draw vessels over-land from
one sea to the other is 40 stadia across.

2. Eleians and Messenians occupy the western side of this
peninsula. Their territory is washed by the Sicilian Sea.
They possess the coast also on each side. Elis bends towards
the north and the commencement of the Corinthian Gulf as
far as the promontory Araxus,^ opposite to which across the
strait is Acarnania; the islands Zacynthus,^ Cephallenia,'*
Ithaca,^ and the Echinades, to which belongs Dulichium, lie
in front of it. The greater part of Messenia is open to the
south and to the Libyan Sea as far as the islands Thyrides
near Taenarum.^

Next to Elis, is the nation of the Achaei looking towards
the north, and stretching along the Corinthian Gulf they
terminate at Sicyonia. Then follow Sicyon"^ and Corinth,
extending as far as the isthmus. Next after Messenia are

between the fourth and fifth, and so on in order until we come to the Pe-
loponnesus, properly so called, which is thus the least of the peninsulas.
Strabo himself seems to admit the term peninsula to be improperly ap-
plied to these subdivisions, by first describing Greece to be divided into
two great bodies, viz. that within and that without the Isthmus of Cor-
inth.

^ For the same reason, at a subsequent period, it obtained the name of
Morea, in Greek (Mopta) which signifies mulberry, a species or variety
of which tree bears leaves divided into five lobes — equal in number to the
five principal capes of the Peloponnesus. See book ii. eh. i. 30.

2 Cape Papa. ^ Zante. * Cephalonia. ' Theaki.

' Cape Matapan. ' Basilico.

6 STRABO. Casaub. 33o.

Laconia and Argeia, which latter country also reaches as far
as the isthmus.

The bays of the Peloponnesus are the Messeniac,^ the La-
conian,^ a third the Argolic,^ and a fourth the Hermionic/
or the Saronic,^ which some writers call the Salaminiac bay.
Some of these bays are supplied by the Libyan, others by
the Cretan and Myrtoan Seas. Some call even the Saronic
Gulf a sea. In the middle of Peloponnesus is Arcadia, lying
contiguous to all the other nations.

3. The Corinthian Gulf begins from the mouths of the
Evenus,^ (some say from the mouths of the Achelous,*^ which
is the boundary between the Acarnanes and -^toli,) and from
the promontory Araxus. For there the shores on both sides
first begin to contract, and have a considerable inclination
towards each other ; as they advance farther onwards they
nearly meet at Rhium ^ and Antirrhium,^ leaving a channel of
only about 5 stadia between them.

Rhium is a promontory of Achaia, it is low, and bends in-
wards like a sickle, (indeed it has the name of Drepanum, or
the Sickle,) and lies between Patrae^^ and ^gium,^^ on it there
is a temple of Neptune. Antirrhium is situated on the con-
fines of ^tolia and Locris. It is called Rhium Molycrium.
From this point the sea-shore again parts in a moderate de-
gree on each side, and advancing into the Crisscean Gulf, ter-
minates there, being shut in by the western boundaries of
Boeotia and Megaris.

The Corinthian Gulf is 2230 stadia in circuit from the
river Evenus to the promontory Araxus ; and if we reckon
from the Achelous, it would be increased by about 100 stadia.

The tract from the Achelous to the Evenus is occupied by
Acarnanians ; next are the ^toli, reaching to the Cape An-
tirrhium. The remainder of the country, as far as the isthmus,
is occupied by Phocis, Bceotia, and by Megaris, it extends
1118 stadia.

The sea from Cape Antirrhium as far as the isthmus is
[the Crissaean Gulf, but from the city Creusa it is called the
Sea of] Alcyonis, and is a portion of the Crissaean Gulf.^^

» Gulf of Coron. « Gulf of Colochina. » Gulf of Napoli.

* Gulf of Castri. * Gulf of Egina. ® Fidari, ^ Aspropotamo.
^ Drepano. ^ Castle of Roumelia. '" Patras. " Vostitza.
" The words in brackets are inserted according to the suggestion of

B. VIII. c. Ill, § 1, 2. GREECE. ELIS. *

From the isthmus to the promontory Araxus is a distance of
1030 stadia.

Such in general then is the nature and extent of the Pelo-
ponnesus, and of the country on the other side of the strait up
to the farther recess of the gulf. Such also is the nature of
the gulf between both.

We shall next describe each country in particular, begin-
ning with Elis.

CHAPTER III.

1 . At present the whole sea-coast lying between the Achaei
and Messenii is called Eleia, it stretches into the inland parts
towards Arcadia at Pholoe, and the Azanes, and Parrhasii.
Anciently it was divided into several states ; afterwards
into two, Elis of the Epeii, and Elis under Nestor, the son of
Neleus. As Homer says, who mentions Elis of the Epeii by
name,

" Sacred Elis, where the Epeii rule."

The other he calls Pylus subject to Nestor, through which, he
says, the Alpheius flows :

" Alpheius, that flows in a straight line through the land of the Pylians." '
The poet was also acquainted with a city Pylus ;

" They arrived at Pylus, the well-built city of Neleus." '
The Alpheius however does not flow through nor beside the
city, but another river flows beside it, which some call
Pamisus, others Amathus, from which Pylus seems to be
termed Emathoeis, but the Alpheius flows through the Eleian
territory.

2. Elis, the present city, was not yet founded in the time
of Homer, but the inhabitants of the country lived in villages.
It was called Coele [or Hollow] Elis, from the accident of its
locahty, for the largest and best part of it is situated in a
hollow. It was at a late period, and after the Persian war,
that the people collected together out of many demi, or

Groskurd. The Gulf of CoriBth.-i»r^in:'^J^Wf~fa,ssages, called by Strabo

the Cris.saean Gulf. ' "^

» Od. xv.^!9a. « II. V. 545. » Od. iii. 4.

o STRABO. Casaitb. 337.

.burghs, into one citj. And, with the exception of a few, the
other places in the Peloponnesus which the poet enumerates
are not to be called cities, but districts. Each contained several
assemblages of demi or burghs, out of which the famous
cities were afterwards formed, as Mantineia in Arcadia, which
was furnished with inhabitants from five burghs by Argives ;

Tegea from nine ; Heraea from as many during the reign of

Cleombrotus, or Cleonymus ; ^gium out of seven, or eight ;
Patrae out of seven ; Dyme out of eight ; thus Elis also was
formed out of the surrounding burghs. The deraus of the
Agriades was one of those added to it. The Peneius ^ flows
through the city by the Gymnasium, which the Eleii con-
structed long after the countries which were subject to Nestor
had passed into their possession.

3. These were the Pisatis, of which Olympia is a part, and
Triphylia, and the territory of the Caucones. The Triphylii
had their name from the accident of the union of three tribes ;
of the Epeii, the original inhabitants; of the Minyai, who
afterwards settled there ; and last of all of the Eleii, who
made themselves masters of the country. Instead of the Minyas
some writers substitute Arcadians, who had frequently dis-
puted the possession of the territory, whence Pylus had the
epithet Arcadian as well as Triphylian. Homer calls all this
tract as far as Messene by the name of Pylus, the name of the
city. The names of the chiefs, and of their abodes in the
Catalogue of the Ships, show that Coele Elis, or the Hollow

J-^' Elis, was distinct from the country subject to Nestor.
^\ f\' I say this on comparing the present places with Homer's
^ ytd ^®scription of them, for we must compare one with the other
^ t^ ^ in consideration of the fame of the poet, and our being bred
V-jsK- "P ^^ ^^ acquaintance with his writings ; and every one will

yS? |\ conclude that our present inquiry is rightly conducted, if

/ )j^y ^ nothing is found repugnant to his accounts of places, which
ip jjV' have been received with the fullest reliance on their credi-

Ibility and his veracity.
We must describe these places as they exist at present, and
as they are represented by the poet, comparing them together
as far as is required by the design of this work.

4. The Araxus is a promontory of Eleia situated on the
north, 60 stadia from Dyme, an Achaean city. This promontory

' Igliaco.

B. vm. c. III. § 5. GREECE. ELIS. 9

we consider the commencement of the coast of Eleia. Pro-
ceeding thence towards the west is Cyllene,i the naval arsenal
of the Eleii, from whence is an ascent of 120 stadia to the pre-
sent city. This Cyllene Homer mentions in these words,

" Cyllenian Otus, chief of the Epeii,"
for he would not have given the title of chief of Epeii to one
who came from the Arcadian mountain of this name. It is a
village of moderate size, in which is preserved the JEsculapius
of Colotes, a statue of ivorj, of admirable workmanship.

Next to CjUene is the promontory Chelonatas,^ the most
westerly point of the Peloponnesus. In front of it there is a
small island and shoals on the confines of Hollow EHs, and the
territory of the Pisatae. From hence [Cyllene] to Cephallenia
is a voyage of not more than 80 stadia. Somewhere on the
above-mentioned confines is the river Elisson, or Elissa.

5. Between the Chelonatas and Cyllene the river Peneius
empties itself, and that also called by the poet Selleis, which
flows from the mountain Pholoe. On this river is situated
Ephyra, a city to be distinguished from the Thesprotian,
Thessalian, and Corinthian Ephyras ; being a fourth city of
this name, situated on the road leading to the Lasion sea-
coast, and which may be either the same place as Boeonoa,
(for it is the custoni to call CEnoe by this name,) or a city
near this, distant from Elis 120 stadia. This Ephyra seems
to be the reputed birth-place of Astyochea, the mother of Tle-
polemus, the son of Hercules,

"Whom Hercules brought from Ephyra, from the river Selleis;"^
(for this was the principal scene of the adventures of Her-
cules ; at the other places called Ephyra, there is no river
Selleis ;) hence came the armour of Meges,
" Which Phyleus formerly brought from Ephyra, from the river Selleis;" *

from this Ephyra came also mortal poisons. For Minerva
says, that Ulysses went to Ephyra

'* In search of a mortal poison wherewith to anoint his arrows :" '
And the suitors say of Telemachus ;

" Or he will go to the rich country of Ephyra to bring back poison de-
structive of our lives." '

Chiarenza, in ruins. ^ Cape Tornese. ' H- ii. 650.

♦ 11. XV. 531. * Od. i. 2G1. « Od. ii. 328.

10 STRABO. Casaub. 338.

And Nestor introduces the daughter of Augeas, king of the
Epeii, in his account of the war with that people, as one who
administered poisons :

" I first slew a man,' Mulius, a brave soldier. He was son-in-law of
Augeas ; he had married his eldest daughter ; she was acquainted with
all the poisons which the earth brings forth."

There is also near Sicyon a river, Selleis, and a village of
the name of Ephyra near it; and a village Ephyra in the
territory of Agraea in ^tolia, the people of which are called
Ephyri. There are also other Ephyri among the Perrhasbi
near Macedonia, who are Crannonians,^ and the Thesprotic
Ephyri of Cichyrus, which was formerly called Ephyra.

6. ApoUodorus, when he informs us in what manner the
poet usually distinguishes places with the same names, as
Orchomenus for instance, designating that in Arcadia by the
epithet, "abounding with sheep;" the Boeotian Orchomenus,
as "Minyeius;" by applying to Samos the term Thracian,
and adds,

" Between Samos and Imbros," '
to distinguish it from Ionian Samos ; so he says the Thes-
protic Ephyra is distinguished from others by the words, " at
a distance," and "from the river Selleis." This does not
agree with what Demetrius of Scepsis says, from whom he
borrows most of his information. For Demetrius does not
say that there is a river Selleis in Thesprotia, but in Elis,
near the Thesprotic Ephyra, as I have said before.

What he says also about CEchalia requires examination,
where he asserts that the city of Eurytus of CEchalia is the
only city, when there is more than one city of that name. It
is therefore evident that he means the Thessalian city men-
tioned by Homer :

" And they who occupied CEchalia, the city of Eurytus, the CEchalian." *
What city, then, is that on the road from which " Thamyris

» II. xi. 738.

2 I read oi kuI, as Meineke suggests, but the whole passage from "there
is " to " Ephyra," is, as he also remarks, probably an interpolation. Strabo
has already enumerated four cities of the name of Ephyra, viz. the Eliac,
the Thesprotic, the Corinthian, and the Thessalian ; yet here two others
are presented to our notice, the Sicyonian and the ^Etolian, of which
Strabo makes no mention in his account of JStolia and Sicyonia.

3 II. xxiv. 78. * II. ii. 730.

B. VIII. c. III. § 7. GREECE. ELIS. PYLUS. H

the Thracian was met by the Muses, and deprived of the
power of song," for he says,

" Coming from CEchalia, from the dwelling of Eurytus, the CEchalian.'"
If this were the city in Thessaly, the Scepsian is mistaken in
mentioning some city in Arcadia, which is now called Andania.
If he is n'ot mistaken, still the Arcadian CEchalia is said to
be the city of Eurytus, so that there is not one city only of
that name, although Apollodorus asserts that there is but one.
7. There existed between the mouths of the Peneius and
the Selleis near Scollis, a Pylus, not the city of Nestor, but
another of that name, having nothing in common with that
on the Alpheius, nor even with that on the Pamisus, or, if
we must so call it, the Amathus. Some writers, through their
soHcitude for the fame and noble descent of Nestor, give a
forced meaning to these words. Since there are three places
in Peloponnesus of the name of Pylus, (whence the saying
originated,

*' There is a Pylus in front of Pylus, and still there is another Pylus,")
namely, this and the Lepreatic Pylus in Triphylia, and a
third, the Messeniac near Coryphasium,^ the advocates for
each place endeavour to show that the river in his own coun-
try is (Emathois) iifiadoeig, or sandy, and declare that to be
the country of Nestor.

The greater number of other writers, both historians and
poets, say, that Nestor was a Messenian, assigning as his birth-
place the Pylus, which continued to exist to their times.
Those, however, who adhere to Homer and follow his poem as
their guide, say, that the Pylus of Nestor is where the terri-
tory is traversed by the Alpheius. Now this river passes
through the Pisatis and Triphylia. The inhabitants of the
Hollow EHs were emulous of the same honour respecting the
Pylus in their own country, and point out distinctive marks,
as a place called Gerenus, and a river Geron, and another
river Geranius, and endeavour to confirm this opinion by
pretending that Nestor had the epithet Gerenius from these
places.

The Messenians argue in the very same manner, but ap-

1 Ti :; ^Qi

2 This' is supposed to be the modem Navarino. The Coryphasium is
Mount St. Nicholas. G.

12 STRABO. Casaub. 340.

parently with more probability on their side. For they say,

that in their territory there is a place better known, called

Gerena, and once well inhabited.

Such then is the present state of the Hollow Elis.^

8. The poet however, after having divided the country into

four parts, and mentioned the four chiefs, does not clearly

express himself, when he says :

"those who inhabit Buprasium and the sacred Elis, all whom Hyrmine
and Myrsinus, situated at the extremity of the territory and the Olenian
rock, and Aleisium contain, these were led by four chiefs ; ten swift vessels
accompanied each, and multitudes of Epeii Avere embarked in them."*

For, by applying the name Epeii to both people, the Bupra-
sians and the Eleii, and by never applying the name Eleii to
the Buprasians, he may seem to divide, not Eleia, but the
country of the Epeii, into four parts, which he had before
divided into two ; nor would Buprasium then be a part of Elis,
but rather of the country of the Epeii. For that he terms
the Buprasians Epeii, is evident from these words :

" As when the Epeii were burying King Amarynces at Buprasium."^
Again, by enumerating together "Buprasium and. sacred
Elis," and then by making a fourfold division, he seems to
arrange these very four divisions in common under both Bu-
prasium and Elis.

Buprasium, it is probable, was a considerable settlement in
Eleia, which does not exist at present. But the territory only
has this name, which lies on the road to Dyme from Elis the
present city. It might be supposed that Buprasium had at
that time some superiority over Elis, as the Epeii had over
the Eleii, but afterwards they had the name of Eleii instead
of Epeii.

Buprasium then was a part of Elis, and they say, that
Homer, by a poetical figure, speaks of the whole and of the
part together, as in these lines :

"through Greece and the middle of Argos;"* "through Greece and
Pthia;"* " the Curetes and the ^Etoli were fighting;"® "those from
Dulichium and the sacred Echinades;''^

for Dulichium is one of the Echinades. Modern writers also
use this figure, as Hipponax,

» KoiXr] "HXic, or Coele-Elis. » II. ii. 615. » II. xxiii. 630.

* Od. L 344. * Od. ii. 496. « II. ix. 529. ' II. ii. 625.

B. VIII. c. III. § 9, 10. GREECE. ELIS. 13

" they eat the bread of the Cyprians and the wheat of the Amathusii ; "
for the Amathusii are Cyprians : and Alcman ;
" leaving the beloved Cyprus, and Paphos, washed on all sides by the sea :"
and ^schylus ;

"possessing as your share by lot the whole of Cyprus and Paphos."

If Homer has not called the Buprasii by the name of Eleii,
we shall reply, nor has he mentioned many other places and
things which exist. For this is not a proof that they did not
exist, but only that he has not mentioned them.

9. But Hecataeus of Miletus says, that the Epeii are a
different people from the Eleii ; that the Epeii accompanied
Hercules in his expedition against Augeas, and joined him in
destroying Elis, and defeating Augeas. He also says, that
Dyme was both an Epeian and an Achaean city.

The ancient historians, accustomed from childhood to
falsehood through the tales of mythologists, speak of many
things that never existed. Hence they do not even agree
with one another, in their accounts of the same things.
Not that it is improbable that the Epeii, although a dif-
ferent people and at variance with the Eleii, when they
had gained the ascendency, united together, forming a com-
mon state, and their power extended even as far as Dyme.
The poet does not mention Dyme, but it is not improbable
that at that time it was subject to the Epeii, and afterwards
to the lones, or perhaps not even to this people, but to the
Achaei, who were in possession of the country of the lones.

Of the four portions, which include Buprasium, Hyrmine
and Myrsinus belong to the territory of Eleia. The rest,
according to the opinion of some writers, are situated close
on the borders of the Pisatis.

10. Hyrmine was a small town, which exists no longer,
but there is a mountainous promontory near Cyllene, called
Hormina or Hyrmina.

Myrsinus is the present Myrtuntium, a settlement extend-
ing to the sea, and situated on the road from Dyme to Elis, at
the distance of 70 stadia from the city of the Eleii.

It is conjectured that the Olenian rock is the present Scollis.
For we might mention probable conjectures, since both places
and names have undergone changes, and the poet himself
does not explain his meaning clearly in many passages.

14 STRABO. Casaub. 341.

Scollis is a rocky mountain, common to the Dymaei, and
Tritaeenses, and Eleii, situated close to Lampeia, another moun-
tain in Arcadia, which is distant from Elis 130 stadia, from
Tritaea 100, and an equal number [from Dyme] Achaean cities.

Aleisium is the present Alesia3um, a place near Amphidolis,
where the neighbouring people hold a market every month.
It is situated upon the mountain road leading from Elis to
Olympia. Formerly, it was a city of the Pisatis, the bound-
aries of the country being different at different times on ac-
count of the change of masters. The poet also calls Aleisium,
the hill of Aleisius, when he says,

" Till we broTight our horses to Buprasium rich in grain, and to the
Olenian rock, and to the place which is called the hill of Aleisium," '

for we must understand the words by the figure hyperbaton.
Some also point out a river Aleisius.

11. Since a tribe of Caucones is mentioned in Triphylia
near Messenia, and as Dyme is called by some writers
Cauconis, apd since between Dyme and Tritaea in the Dymaean
district there is also a river called Caucon, a question arises
respecting the Caucones, whether there are two nations of this
name, one situate about Triphylia, and another about Dyme,
Elis, and Caucon. This river empties itself into another
which is called Teutheas, in the masculine gender, and is the
name of a small town that was one of those that composed
Dyme ; except that the town is of the feminine gender, and is
pronounced Teuthea, without the s, and the last syllable is long.

There is a temple of Diana Nemydia (Nemeasa?). The
Teutheas discharges itself into the Achelous, which runs by
Dyme, and has the same name as that in Acarnania, and the
name also of Peirus. In the lines of Hesiod,

" he lived near the Olenian rock on the banks of the broad Peirus,"
some change the last word Ueipoio to Uwpoio, but improperly.

^ [But it is the opinion of some writers, who make the
Caucones a subject of inquiry, that when Minerva in the
Odyssey, who has assumed the form of Mentor, says to Nestor ;

" At sun-rise I go to the magnanimous Caucones, where a debt neither of
a late date nor of small amount is owing to me.^ When Telemachus
comes to thy house send him with thy son, thy chariot, and thy horses ;"

» II. ii. 756.

' — * This passage in brackets is an interpolation to explain the subse-
quent inquiry who the Caucones were. Kramer. ^ II. iii. 636.

B. vm. c. III. § 12. GREECE. ELIS. 15

a certain district in the territory of the Epeii appears to be
designated, which the Caucones, a different nation from that
in Triphylia, possessed, and who perhaps extended even as far
as the Dymean territory.] But it was not proper to omit,
whence Dyme had the name Cauconitis, nor why the river was
called Caucon, because the question is, who the Caucones^
were, to whom Minerva says, she is going to recover a debt.
For if we understand the poet to mean those in Triphylia
about Lepreum, I know not how this is probable ; whence
some persons even write the passage,

" where a large debt is owing to me in the sacred Elis."
This will appear more clearly, when we describe the Pisatis,
and after it Triphylia as far as the confines of Messenia.

12. Next to the Chelonatas is the long tract of coast of the
Pisatae ; then follows a promontory, Pheia ; there was also a
small town of this name ;

" by the walls of Pheia about the stream of the Jardanes," *
for there is a small river near it.

Some writers say, that Pheia is the commencement of the
Pisatis. In front of Pheia is a small island and a harbour ;
thence to Olympia by sea, which is the shortest way, is
120 stadia. Then immediately follows another promontory,
[Icthys,] projecting very far towards the west, like the
Chelonatas; from this promontory to Cephallenia are 120
stadia. Next the Alpheius discharges itself, at the distance
from the Chelonatas of 280, and from the Araxus of 545,
stadia. It flows from the same places as the Eurotas. There
is a village of the name of Asea in the Megalopolitis, where
the two sources, whence the above-mentioned rivers issue, are
near to one another. After running under the earth the dis-
tance of many stadia, they then rise to the surface, when one
takes its course to Laconia, the other to the Pisatis. The
Eurotas reappears at the commencement of the district Ble-
minates, flowing close beside Sparta, and passing through a
long valley near Helos, which the poet mentions, empties itself
between Gythium, the naval arsenal of Sparta, and Acrsea.
But the Alpheius, after receiving the Celadon, (Ladon ?) and
Erymanthus, and other obscure streams, pursues its course
through Phrixa, and the Pisatis, and Triphylia, close to Olympia,

' Book vii. ch. vii. 2. » II. vii. 135.

16 STRABO. Casaub. 343-

and discharges itself into the Sicilian Sea between Pheia and
Epitalium. At its mouth, and at the distance of 80 stadia
from Olympia, is situated the grove of Artemis Alpheionia,
or Alpheiusa, for both words are in use. At Olympia an
annual festival, to which multitudes resort, is celebrated in
honour of this goddess, as well as of Diana Elaphia and
Diana Daphnia. The whole country is full of temples dedi-
cated to Diana, and Aphrodite, and the Nymphs, which are
situated amidst flowery groves, and generally where there is
abundance of water. Hermeia, or images of Mercury, are
frequently met with on the road, and on the sea-shore, temples
dedicated to Neptune. In the temple of Diana Alpheionia
are pictures by Cleanthes and Aregon, Corinthian painters ;
the former has depicted the taking of Troy, and the birth of
Minerva ; the latter, Diana borne upon a griffin ; which are
highly esteemed.

13. Next is the mountain, which separates Macistia in
Triphylia from the Pisatis ; then follows another river Chalcis,
and a spring called Cruni, and Chalcis a village, and next to
these the Samicum, where is the temple of the Samian Nep-
tune, which is held in the highest honour. There is also a
grove full of wild olive trees. It was intrusted to the care
of the Macistii, whose business it was to announce the Samian
truce as it is called. All the Triphylii contribute to the temple.

[The temple of the Scilluntian Minerva at Scillus in the
neighbourhood of Olympia, opposite the Phellon, is among
the celebrated temples.]^

14. Near these temples, at the distance of 30 stadia, or a
little more, above the sea-coast, is situated the Triphyliac, or
Lepreatic, Pylus, which the poet calls Emathoeis, or Sandy,
and transmits to us as the native country of Nestor, as may
be collected from his poetry. It had the epithet Emathoeis
either from the river, which flows by the city towards the
north, and was formerly called Amathus, but now Mamaus,
or Arcadicus ; or because this river was called Pamisus, the
same name as that of two rivers in Messenia, while with
respect to the city, the epithet Emathoeis, or sandy, is of un-
certain origin, since it is not the fact, it is said, that either
the river or the country abounds with sand.

' This passage is transposed from the following section, as proposed by
Groskurd.

B. VIII. c. III. § 15, 16. ELIS. 17

Towards the east is a mountain near Pylus, named after
Minthe, who, according to the fable, was the mistress of
Hades, and being deluded by Proserpine, was transformed
into the garden mint, which some call hedyosmus, or the
sweet-smelling mint. There is also near the mountain an en-
closure, sacred to Hades, held in great veneration by the
Macistii; and a grove dedicated to Ceres, situated above the-
Pyliac plain. This plain is fertile, and situated close to the
sea-coast ; it extends along the interval between the Samicum
and the river Neda. The sea-shore is sandy and narrow, so
that no one could be censured for asserting that Pylus was
called " sandy " from this tract.

15. Towards the north there were two small Triphyliac
towns, Hypana and Typaneae, bordering upon Pylus ; the
former of which was incorporated with Elis, the other re-
mained separate. Two rivers flow near, the Dalion and the
Acheron, and empty themselves into the Alpheius. The
Acheron has its name from its relation to Hades. For at that
place were held in extraordinary reverence the temples of
Ceres, Proserpine, and Hades, perhaps on account of the con-
trariety of the properties of the country, which Demetrius
of Scepsis mentions. For Triphylia is fertile, but the soil is
subject to mildew, and produces rushes,^ whence in these
places, instead of the product being large, there is frequently
no crop whatever.

16. Towards the south of Pylus is Lepreum. This also
was a city, situated 40 stadia above the sea-coast. Between
the Lepreum and the Annius (Anigrus ? Alphaeus ?) is the
temple of the Samian Neptune. These places are distant 100
stadia from each other. This is the temple in which the poet
says that the Pylii were found by Telemachus engaged in
offering sacrifice :

" They came to Pylus, the well-built city of Neleus ; the people were
sacrificing on the sea-shore bulls, entirely black, to Neptune, the god of
the dark locks, who shakes the earth." ^

For the poet was at liberty to feign things which did not
exist, but when it is possible to adapt poetry to reality, and

' 9pvov, the meaning of this word is uncertain; Meyer in his "Bo-
tanische erklarung " of Strabo does not attempt to explain it.
2 Od. iii. 4.

18 STRABO. Casaub. 345.

preserve tlie narrative .... it is better to abstain from
fiction.

The Lepreatce possessed a fertile country, on the confines of
which were situated the Cyparissenses. But Caucones were
masters of both these tracts, and even of the Macistus, which
some call Platanistus. The town has the same name as the
territory. It is said, that in the Lepreatis there is even a
monument of a Caucon, who had the name of the nation,
either because he was a chief, or for some other reason.

17. There are many accounts respecting the Caucones.
They are said to be an Arcadian tribe, like the Pelasgi, and
also, like them, a wandering people. Thus the poet relates,
that they came as auxiliaries to the Trojans, but from what
country he does not mention, but it is supposed from Paphla-
gonia. For in that country there is a tribe of the name of
Cauconiatae, that border upon the Mariandyni, who are them-
selves Paphlagonians. We shall say more of them when we
describe that country.^

At present I must add some remarks concerning the
Caucones in Triphylia. For some writers say, that the
whole of the present Elis, from Messenia to Dyme, was called
Cauconia. Antimachus calls them all Epeii and Caucones.
But some writers say that they did not possess the whole
country, but inhabited it when they were divided into two
bodies, one of which settled in Triphylia towards Messenia,
the other in the Buprasian district towards Dyme, and in
the Hollow Elis. And there, and not in any other place,
Aristotle considered them to be situated. The last opinion
agrees better with the language of Homer, and the preceding
question is resolved. For Nestor is supposed to have lived at
the Triphyliac Pylus, the parts of which towards the south
and the east (and these coincide towards Messenia and La-
conia) was the country subject to Nestor, but the Caucones
now occupy it, so that those who are going from Pylus to
Lacedaemon must necessarily take the road through the
Caucones. The temple of the Samian Neptune, and the
naval station near it, where Telemachus landed, incline to the
west and to the north. If then the Caucones lived there only,
the account of the poet must be erroneous.

* Book xii. c. 3, 4. Little, however, can be obtained of their history,
which is buried in the same obscurity as the Pelasgi and Leleges.

B. VIII. c. III. § 18, 19. ELIS. 19

[For, according to Sotades, Minerva enjoins Nestor to send
his son with Telemachus in a chariot to Lacedaemon towards
the east, while she herself returns back to the west, to pass the
night in the vessel ;

"but at sun-rise she sets out to the magnanimous Caucones,"

to obtain payment of the debt, in a forward direction. How
then are we to reconcile these opinions? for Nestor might
say, " The Caucones are my subjects, and lie directly in the
road of persons who are going to Lacedaemon ; why then
do you not accompany Telemachus and his friends on his
journey, but take a road in an opposite direction?" Besides,
it was natural for one, who was going to recover payment of
a debt, and that a considerable sum, as she says, from a people
under the command of Nestor, to request some assistance from
him in case they should be so unjust, as usually happens, as to
refuse to discharge it. But she did not do this.

If therefore the Caucones are to be found in one situation
only, these absurdities would follow. But if one division of
this tribe occupied the places in Elis near Dyme, Minerva
might be said to direct her journey thither, and even the
return to the ship would not be absurd, nor the separation
from the company of Telemachus, when her road was in an
opposite direction.

The question respecting Pylus may perhaps be resolved in
a similar manner, when we come, as we proceed, to the de-
scription of the Messenian Pylus. ^]

18. There is also, it is said, a nation, the Paroreatse, who
occupy, in the hilly district of Triphylia, the mountains,
which extend from about Lepreum and Macistum to the sea
near the Samian grove sacred to Neptune.

19. Below these people on the coast are two caves ; one, of
the nymphs Anigriades ; the other, the scene of the adventures
of the Atlantides,^ and of the birth of Dardanus. There
also are the groves, both the lonseum and Eurycydeium.

Samicum is a fortress. Formerly there was a city of the
name of Samos, which perhaps had its designation from its

* This passage is an interpolation by the same hand probably as that
in s. 11. Cramer.

2 Uardanus was the son of Jupiter and Electra, one of the seven,
daughters of Atlas, surnamed Atlantides.

c 2

20 STRABO. Casaub. 346.

height, since they called heights Sami ; perhaps also this was
the acropolis of Arene, which the poet mentions in the
Catalogue of the Ships ;

" who inhabited Pylus, and the pleasant Arene ;" *

for as the position of Arene has not been clearly discovered
anywhere, it is conjectured, that it was most probably situ-
ated where the adjoining river Anigrus, formerly called
Minyeius, empties itself. As no inconsiderable proof of this,
Homer says,

" There is a river Minyeius, which empties itself into the sea, near Arene.'"

Now near the cave of the nymphs Anigriades is a fountain,
by which the subjacent country is rendered marshy, and filled
with pools of water. The Anigrus however receives the great-
er part of the water, being deep, but with so little current
that it stagnates. The place is full of mud, emits an offensive
smell perceptible at a distance of 26 stadia, and renders the
fish unfit for food. Some writers give this fabulous account
of these waters, and attribute the latter effect to the venom
of the Hydra, which some of the Centaurs ^ washed from
their wounds ; others say, that Melampus used these cleansing
waters for the purification of the Proetades.'* They are a
cure for alphi, or leprous eruptions, and the white tetter, and
the leichen. They say also that the Alpheus had its name
from its property of curing the disease alphi.^

Since then the sluggishness of the Anigrus, and the recoil
of the waters of the sea, produce a state of rest rather than a
current, they say, that its former name was Minyeius, but
that some persons perverted the name and altered it to
Mintei'us. The etymology of the name may be derived from
other sources ; either from those who accompanied Chloris,
the mother of Nestor, from the Minyeian Orchomenus ; or,

I II. ii. 591. 2 XL ii. 721.

3 Hercules, after killing the Hydra, dipped the arrows which he after-
wards made use of against the Centaurs, in gall of this monster. Pau-
sanias, however, speaks of one Centaur only, Chiron, or, according to
others, Polenor, who washed his wounds in the Anigrus.

* The daughters of Proetus. According to ApoUodorus, Melampus
cured them of madness, probably the effect of a disease of the skin.

* Alphi, Lepra alphoides. Leuce, white tetter or common leprosy.
Leichen, a cutaneous disease tending to leprosy.

B. VIII. c. III. § 20, 21. ELIS. ' ♦ 21

from the Minyge descendants of the Argonauts, who were
banished from Lemnos, and went to Lacedaemon, and thence
to Triphylia, and settled about Arene, in the country now
called Hypaesia, which however no longer contains places
built by the Minyse.

Some of these people, with Theras the son of Autesion,
who was a descendant of Polynices, having set sail to the
country between Cyrenaea and the island of Crete, " formerly
Calliste, but afterwards called Thera," according to Callima-
chus, founded Thera, the capital of Cyrene, and gave the
same name to the city, and to the island.

20. Between the Anigrus and the mountain from which
the Jardanes rises, a meadow and a sepulchre are shown,
and the Achasas, which are rocks broken off from the same
mountain, above which was situated, as I have said, the
city Samos. Samos is not mentioned by any of the authors
of Peripli, or Circumnavigations; because perhaps it had
been long since destroyed, and perhaps also on account of its
position. For the Poseidium is a grove, as I have said, near
the sea, a lofty eminence rises above it, situated in front of the
present Samicum, where Samos once stood, so that it cannot
be seen from the sea.

Here also is the plain called Samicus, from which we may
further conjecture that there was once a city Samos.

According to the poem Rhadine, of which Stesichorus
seems to have been the author, and which begins in this
manner.

" Come, tuneful Muse, Erato, begin the melodious song, in praise of the
lovely Samian youths, sounding the strings of the delightful lyre : "

these youths were natives of this Samos. For he says that
Rhadine being given in marriage to the tyrant, set sail from
Samos to Corinth with a westerly wind, and therefore cer-
tainly not from the Ionian Samos. By the same wind her
brother, who was archi-theorus, arrived at Delphi. Her
cousin, who was in love with her, set out after her in a
chariot to Corinth. The tyrant put both of them to death,
and sent away tfie bodies in a chariot, but changing his mind,
he recalled the chariot, and buried them.

21. From this Pylus and the Lepreum to the Messenian
Pylus ^ and the Coryphasium, fortresses situated upon the sea,

' The position of Pylus of Messenia is uncertain. D'Anville places it

22 * STRABO. Casaub. 348.

and to the adjoining island Sphagia, is a distance of about
400 stadia, and from the Alpheius a distance of 750, and
from the promontory Chelonatas 1030 stadia. In the inter-
vening distance are the temple of the Macistian Hercules,
and the river Acidon, which flows beside the tomb of Jardanus,
and Chaa, a city which was once near Lepreum, where also is
the ^pasian plain. It was for this Chaa, it is said, that the
Arcadians and Pylians went to war with each other, which
war Homer has mentioned, and it is thought that the verse
ought to be written,

" Oh that I were young as when multitudes of Pylii, and of Arcades,
handling the spear, fought together at the swift-flowing Acidon near the
walls of Chaa," '

not Celadon, nor Pheia, for this place is nearer the tomb of
Jardanus and the Arcades than the other.

22. On the Triphylian Sea are situated Cyparissia, and
Pyrgi, and the rivers Acidon and Neda. At present the
boundary of Triphylia towards Messenia is the impetuous
stream of the N^da descending from the LycaBus, a mountain
of Arcadia, and rising from a source which, according to the
fable, burst forth to furnish water in which Rhea was to wash
herself after the birth of Jupiter. It flows near Phigalia, and
empties itself into the sea where the Pyrgitae, the extreme
tribe of the Triphylii, approach the Cyparissenses, the first of
the Messenian nation. But, anciently, the country had other
boundaries, so that the dominions of Nestor included some
places on the other side of the Neda, as the Cyparissei's, and
some others beyond that tract, in the same manner as the poet
extends the Pylian sea as far as the seven cities, which Aga-
memnon promised to Achilles,

" All near the sea bordering upon the sandy Pylus," ^
which is equivalent to, near the Pylian sea.

23. Next in order to the Cyparissei's in traversing the
coast towards the Messenian Pylus and the Coryphasium, we
meet with Erana, (Eranna,) which some writers incorrectly
suppose was formerly called Arene, by the same name as the
Pylian city, and the promontory Platamodes, from which to
the Coryphasium, and to the place at present called Pylus, are

at New Navarino, Barbie de Bocage at Old Navarino. See also Ernst
Curlius, Peloponnesus.

» II. vii. 133. 2 II. ix. 153.

B. VIII. c. III. § 24. ELIS. PYLUS. 23

100 stadia.^ There is also a cenotaph and a small town in it
both of the same name — Prote.

We ought not perhaps to carry our inquiries so far into an-
tiquity, and it might be sufficient to describe the present state
of each place, if certain reports about them had not been de-
livered down to us in childhood ; but as different writers give
different accounts, it is necessary to examine them. The most
famous and the most ancient writers being the first in point
of personal knowledge of the places, are, in general, persons of
the most credit. Now as Homer surpasses all others in these
respects, we must examine what he says, and compare his
descriptions with the present state of places, as we have just
said. We have already considered his description of the
Hollow Elis and of Buprasium.

24. He describes the dominions of Nestor in these words :

" And they who inhabited Pylus, and the beautiful Arene, and Thryum,
a passage across the Alpheius, and the well-built iEpy, and Cyparisseis,
and Amphigeneia, and Pteleum, and Helos, and Dorium, where the
Muses having met with Thamyris the Thracian, deprived him of the
power of song, as he was coming from CEchalia, from the house of Eurytus
the CEchalian.2

It is Pylus, therefore, to which the question relates, and we
shall soon treat of it. We have already spoken of Arene.
The places, which he here calls Thryum, in another passage
he calls Thryoessa,

" There is a city Thryoessa, lofty, situated on a hill,
Far off, on the banks of the Alpheius." ^

He calls it the ford or passage of the Alpheius, because, ac-
cording to these verses, it seems as if it could be crossed at
this place on foot. Thryum is at present called Epitalium, a
village of Macistia.

With respect to evktitov ATttu, "^py the well-built,"
some writers ask which of these words is the epithet of the
other, and what is the city, and whether it is the present Mar-
galae of Amphidolia, but this Margalae is not a natural fortress,
but another is meant, a natural strong-hold in Macistia.
Writers who suppose this place to be meant, say, that ^py is
the name of the city, and infer it from its natural properties,
as in the example of Helos,'* -^gialos,^ and many others:

• Some MSS. have 120 stadia. * II. ii. 591. ' II. xi. 710.

* A marsh. * The sea-shore.

24 STRABO. Casaub. 349.

those who suppose Margalae to be meant here, will assert the
contrary.

Thryum, or Thryoessa, they say, is Epitalium, because all the
country is dpvwdTjg, or sedgy, and particularly the banks of the
rivers, but this appears more clearly at the fordable places of
the stream. Perhaps Thryum is meant by the ford, and by
" the well-built JEpj" Epitalium, which is naturally strong,
and in the other part of the passage he mentions a lofty hill ;
" The city Thryoessa, a lofty hill,
Far away by the Alpheus." '

25. Cyparisseis is near the old Macistia, which then ex-
tended even to the other side of the Neda, but it is not in-
habited, as neither is Macistum. There is also another, the
Messenian Cyparissia, not having quite the same name, but
one like it. The city of Macistia is at present called Cypa-
rissia, in the singular number, and feminine gender, but the
name of the river is Cyparisseis.

Amphigeneia, also belonging to Macistia, is near Hypsoeis,
where is the temple of Latona.

Pteleum was founded by the colony that came fromPteleum
in Thessaly, for it is mentioned in this line,

*' Antron on the sea-coast, and the grassy Pteleum." ^
It is a woody place, uninhabited, called Pteleasimum.

Some writers say, that Helos was some spot near the
Alpheius ; others, that it was a city like that in Laconia,

" and Helos, a small city on the sea ; " '
others say that it is the marsh near Alorium, where is a
temple of the Eleian Artemis, (Diana of the Marsh,) belong-
ing to the Arcadians, for this people had the priesthood.

Dorium is said by some authors to be a mountain, by others
a plain, but nothing is now to be seen ; yet it is alleged, that
the present Oluris, or Olura, situated in the Aulon, as it is
called, of Messenia, is Dorium. Somewhere there also is
CEchalia of Eurytus, the present Andania, a small Arcadian
town of the same name as those in Thessaly and Euboea,
whence the poet says, Thamyris, the Thracian, came to Do-
rium, and was deprived by the Muses of the power of song.

26. Hence it is evident that the country under the command
of Nestor is on each side of the Alpheius, all of which tract

» II. xi. 710. 2 II. ii. 697. 3 II, ii 584.

B. VIII. c. III. § 27. ELIS. PYLUS. * 25

lie calls the country of the Pylians, but nowhere does the
Alpheius touch Messenia, nor the Hollow Elis.^

It is in this district that we have the native country of
Nestor, which we call the Triphylian, the Arcadian, and the
Lepreatic Pylus. For we know that other places of the name
of Pylus are pointed out, situated upon the sea, but this is
distant more than 30 stadia from it, as appears from the
poem. A messenger is sent to the vessel, to the companions
of Telemachus, — to invite them to a hospitable entertainment.
Telemachus, upon his return from Sparta, does not permit
Peisistratus to go to the city, but diverts him from it, and
prevails upon him to hasten to the ship, whence it appears
that the same road did not lead both to the city and to the
haven. The departure of Telemachus may in this manner
be aptly understood :

" they went past Cruni, and the beautiful streams of Chalcis ; the sun
set, and all the villages were in shade and darkness ; but the ship, ex-
ulting in .the gales of Jove, arrived at Phese. She passed also the divine
Elis, where the Epeii rule ;"2

for to this place the direction of the vessel was towards the
north, and thence it turns to the east. The vessel leaves its
first and straight course in the direction of Ithaca, because the
suitors had placed an ambush there,
" In the strait between Ithaca and Samos,
And from thence he directed the vessel to the sharp-pointed islands,
vrjaotoi Ooyal ;" '

the sharp-pointed (o^lai) he calls doal. They belong to the
Echinades, and are near the commencement of the Corinthian
Gulf and the mouths of the Achelous. After having sailed
past Ithaca so as to leave the island behind him, he turns to
the proper course between Acarnania and Ithaca, and disem-
barks on the other side of the island, not at the strait of
Cephallenia, where the suitors were on the watch.

27. If any one therefore should suppose that the Eleian
Pylus is the Pylus of Nestor, the ship would not properly be
said, after setting off thence, to take its course along Cruni
and Chalcis, as far as the west, then to arrive by night at
Pheas, and afterwards to sail along the territory of Eleia, for

' In the discussion which follows, Strabo endeavours to prove, that
the Pylus of Nestor is the Pylus of Triphylia, and not the Pylus of Mes-
senia.

2 Od. XV. 295. > 3 od. iv. 671 : xv. 298.

26 STRABO. Casaub. 351.

these places are to the south of Eleia, first Phese, then Chalcis,
then Crunt, then the TriphyHan Pylus, and the Samicum.
In sailing then to the south from the Eleian Pjlus this would
be the course. In sailing to the north, where Ithaca lies, all
these places are left behind, but they must sail along Eleia
itself, and before, although he says after, sun-set. Again, on
the other side, if any one should suppose the Messenian Pylus
and the Coryphasium to be the commencement of the voyage
after leaving the country of Nestor, the distance would be
great, and would occupy more time. For the distance only
to the Triphylian Pylus and the Samian Poseidium is 400
stadia, and the voyage would not be along Cruni, and Chalcis,
and Pheae, the names of obscure places and rivers, or rather
of streams, but first along the Neda, then Acidon, next
Alpheius, and the places and countries lying between these
rivers, and lastly, if we must mention them, along the former,
because the voyage was along the former places and rivers
also.

28. Besides, Nestor's account of the war between the
Pylians and Eleians, which he relates to Patroclus, agrees
with our arguments, if any one examines the lines. For he
says there, that Hercules laid waste Pylus, and that all the
youth were exterminated ; that out of twelve sons of Neleus,
he himself alone survived, and was a very young man, and
that the Epeii, despising Neleus on account of his old age
and destitute state, treated the Pylians with haughtiness and
insult. Nestor therefore, in order to avenge this wrong, collected
as large a body of his people as he was able, made an inroad
into Eleia, and carried away a large quantity of booty ;
" Fifty herds of oxen, as many flocks of sheep,
As many herds of swine," *

and as many flocks of goats, an hundred and fifty brood
mares, bay-coloured, most of which had foals, and "these,"
he says,

" We drove away to Pylus, belonging to Neleus,
By night towards the city;'"''

so that the capture of the booty, and the flight of those who
came to the assistance of people who were robbed, hap-
pened in the day-time, when, he says, he slew Itamon ; and
they returned by night, so that they arrived by night at the
» II. xi.677. » II. xi. 681.

B. vm. c. m. § 29. ELIS. PYLUS. 27

city. When they were engaged in dividing the booty, and in
sacrificing, the Epeii, having assembled in multitudes, on the
third day marched against them with an army of horse and
foot, and encamped about Thryum, which is situated on the
Alpheius. The Pylians were no sooner informed of this than
they immediately set out to the relief of this place, and having
passed the night on the river Minyeius near Arene, thence
arrive at the Alpheius at noon. After sacrificing to the gods,
and passing the night on the banks of the river, they imme-
diately, in the morning, engaged in battle. The rout of the
enemy was complete, and they did not desist from the pursuit
and slaughter, till they came to Buprasium,
" and tlie Olenian rock, where is a tumulus of Alesius, whence again
Minerva repulsed the multitudes ; " '
and adds below,

" but the Achsei
Turned back their swift hOrses from Buprasium to Pylus."

29. From these verses how can it be supposed that Eleian
or Messenian Pylus is meant. I say the Eleian, because when
this was destroyed by Hercules, the country of the Epeii also
was ravaged at the same time, that is, Eleia. How then could
those, who were of the same tribe, and who had been plun-
dered at that time, show such pride and insult to persons, who
were suffering under the same injuries? How could they
overrun and ravage their own country ? How could Augeas
and Neleus be kings of the same people, and yet be mutual
enemies ; for to Neleus

" a great debt was owing at the divine Elis; four horses, which had won
the prize ; they came with their chariots to contend for prizes ; they were
about to run in the race for a tripod ; and Augeas, king of men, detained
them there, but dismissed the charioteer." ^

If Neleus lived there, there Nestor also lived. How then
were there

" four chiefs of Eleians and Buprasians, with ten swift ships accompany-
ing each, and with many Epeii embarked in them ? "

The country also was divided into four parts, none of which
was subject to Nestor, but those tribes were under his com-
mand,

" who lived at Pylus, and the pleasant Arene,"
and at the places that follow next as far as Messene.
> II. xi. 756. * 11. xi. 697.

28 / STRABO. Casaub. 352.

How came the Epeii, when marching against the Pylians, to
set out towards the Alpheius and Thryum, and after being
defeated there in battle, to fly to Buprasium ? But on the
other side, if Hercules laid waste the Messenian Pylus, how
could they, who were at such a distance, treat the Pylians
with insult, or have so much intercourse and traffic with
them, and defraud them by refusing to discharge a debt, so
that war should ensue on that account? How too could
Nestor, after having got, in his marauding adventure, so large
a quantity of booty, a prey of swine and she^p, none of which
are swift-footed, nor able to go a long journey, accomplish a
march of more than 1000 stadia to Pylus near Coryphasium ?
Yet all the Epeii arrive at Thryoessa and the river Alpheius
on the third day, ready to lay siege to the strong-hold. How
also did these districts belong to the chiefs of Messenia, when
the Caucones, and Triphylii, and Pisatse occupied them ?
But the territory Gerena, or Gerenia, for it is written both
ways, might have a name which some persons applied de-
signedly, or which might have originated even in accident.

Since, however, Messenia was entirely under the dominion

of Menelaus, to whom Laconia also was subject, as will be

evident from what will be said hereafter, and since the rivers,

the Pamisus and the Nedon, flow through this country, and

not the Alpheius at all, which runs in a straight line through

the country of the Pylians, of which Nestor was ruler, can

that account be credible, by which it appears that one man

r takes possession by force of the dominion of another, and

n \ deprives him of the cities, which are said to be his property

^\^\ ^ in the Catalogue of the Ships, and makes others subject to

the usurper.

30. It remains that we speak of Olympia, and of the
manner in which everything fell into the power of the Eleii.

The temple is in the district Pisatis, at the distance of less
than 300 stadia from Elis. In front of it is a grove of wild
olive trees, where is the stadium. The Alpheius flows beside
it, taking its course out of Arcadia to the Triphylian Sea
between the west and the south. The fame of the temple
was originally owing to the oracle of the Olympian Jove ;
yet after that had ceased, the renown of the temple con-
tinued, and increased, as we know, to a high degree of cele-
brity, both on account of the assembly of the people of Greece,

B. VIII. c. III. § 30. ELIS. 29

which was held there, and of the Olympic games, in which
the victor was crowned. These games were esteemed sacred,
and ranked above all others. The temple was decorated
with abundance of offerings, the contributions of all Greece.-
Among these offerings was a Jupiter of beaten gold, presented
by Cypselus, the tyrant of Corinth. The largest was a
statue of Jupiter in ivory, the worlkmanship of Phidias of
Athens, the son of CJiarmides. Its height was so great, that
although the temple is very large, the artist seems to have
mistaken its proportions, and although he made the figure
sitting, yet the head nearly touches the roof, and presents the
appearance that, if it should rise, and stand upright, it would
unroof the temple. Some writers have given the measure-
ment of the statue, and Callimachus has expressed it in some
iambic verses. Panasnus, the painter, his nephew, and joint
labourer, afforded great assistance in the completion of the
statue with respect to the colours with which it was orna-
mented, and particularly the drapery.

There are exhibited also many and admirable pictures
around the temple, the work of this painter. It is recorded
of Phidias, that to Panaenus, who was inquiring after what
model he intended to form the figure of Jupiter, he replied,
that it would be from that of Homer delineated in these words ;

" He spoke, and gave the nod with his sable brows, the ambrosial hair
shook on the immortal head of the king of gods, and vast Olympus
trembled." *

[This is well expressed, and the poet, as from other circum-
stances, so particularly from the brows, suggests the thought
that he is depicting some grand conception, and great power
worthy of Jupiter. So also in his description of Juno, in
both he preserves the peculiar decorum of each character, for
he says,

" she moved herself upon the throne, and shook vast Olympus : " ^
this was effected by the motion of her whole body, but
Olympus shakes when Jupiter only nods with his brows, the
hair of his head partaking of the motion. It was elegantly
said [of Homer] that he was the only person who had
seen and had made visible the figures of the gods.] ^

1 II. i. 528. ' II. viii. 199.

^ Probably an interpolation.

30 yiRABO. Casaub. 354.

To the Eleii above all other people is to be ascribed the
magnificence of the temple at Oljmpia, and the reverence in
which it was held. For about the Trojan times, and even
before that period, they were not in a flourishing state, having
been reduced to a low condition by war with the Pylii, and
afterwards by Hercules, when Augeas their king was over-
thrown. The proof is this. The Eleii sent forty ships to
Troy, but the Pylians and Nestor ninety; then after the
return of the Heracleidae the contrary happened. For the
jEtoli returning with the Heracleida3 under the command of
Oxylus, became joint settlers with the Epeii, on the ground of
ancient affinity. They extended the bounds of Hollow Elis,
got possession of a large portion of the Pisatis, and subjected
Olympia to their power. It was these people who invented
the Olympic games,^ and instituted the first Olympiad. For
we must reject the ancient stories both respecting the founda-
tion of the temple, and the establishment of the games, some
alleging that Hercules, one of the Idsean Dactyli, was the
founder ; others, that the son of Alcmene and Jupiter founded
them, who also was the first combatant and victor. For such
y jf . ^ , things are variously reported, and not entitled to much credit.

k\^''^-'

"^ Jt is more probable, that from the first Olympiad,^ 'vchaft

)(i>i'^''^ Coroebus the Eleian was the victor in the race in the stadium;

^^^~the twenty-sixth, the Eleians presided over the temple, and
' atjthe_games. But in the Trojan times, either there were no'
games where^ crown was awarded, or they had not yet ac-
quired any fame, neither these nor any of the games which
are now so renowned. Homer does not speak of these games,
but of others of a different kind, which were celebrated at
funerals. Some persons however are of opinion that he does
mention the Olympic games, when he says, that Augeas de-
tained four victorious horses, which had been sent to contend
for the prize. It is also said that the Pisatas did not take any
part in the Trojan war, being considered as consecrated to the
service of Jupiter. But neither was the Pisatis, the tract of
country in which Olympia is situated, subject at that time to
Augeas, but Eleia only, nor were the Olympic games cele-

^ The establishment of the Olympic games is connected with-uiafty
legends, and is involved in much obscurity. See Smith, Greek and Ro-
man Antiq. ' - —

2 776 B. c.

B. Tin. c. in. § 31. ELIS. 31

brated even once in the Elelan district, but always at Olympia.
But the games, of which Homer speaks, seem to have taken
place in Elis, where the debt was owing,

" For a great debt was owing in the divine Elis,
Namely, four victorious horses.'"
But it was not in these, but in the Olympic games, that the
victor was crowned, for here they were to contend for a tripod.

After the twenty-sixth Olympiad, the Pisatas, having re-
covered their territory, instituted games themselves, when
they perceived that these games were obtaining celebrity. But
in after-times, when the territory of the Pisatis reverted to the
Eleii, the presidency and celebration of the games reverted
to them also. The Lacedaemonians too, after the last defeat of
the Messenians, co-operated with the Eleii as allies, contrary
to the conduct of the descendants of Nestor and of the Arca-
dians, who were allies of the Messenians. And they assisted
them so effectually that all the country as far as Messene was
called Eleia, and the name continues even to the present time.
But of the Pisatas, and Triphylii, and Caucones, not even the
names remain. They united also Pylus Emathoeis itself with
Lepreum in order to gratify the Lepreatse, who had taken no
part in the war. They razed many other towns, and imposed
a tribute upon as many as were inclined to maintain their in-
dependence.

31. The Pisatis obtained the highest celebrity from the
great power of its sovereigns, OEnomaus and his successor
Pelops, and the number of their children. Salmoneus is said
to have reigned there, and one of the eight cities, into which
the Pisatis is divided, has the name of Salmone. For these
reasons, and on account of the temple at Olympia, the fame
of the country spread everywhere.

We must however receive ancient histories, as not entirely
agreeing with one another, for modern writers, entertaining
different opinions, are accustomed to contradict them fre-
quently ; as for example, according to some writers, Augeas
was king of the Pisatis, and OEnomaus and Salmoneus kings
of Eleia, while others consider the two nations as one. Still
we ought to follow in general what is received as true, since
writers are not agreed even upon the derivation of the word
Pisatis. Some derive it from Pisa, (JiHaa,) a city of the same
» II. xi. 677.

\ ■ -

32 STRABO. Casaub. 366.

name as the fountain, and say that the fountain had that name,
as much as to say Pistra, (IHarpa,) which means Potistra,
{TTOTicTTpa,) or " potable." The city of Pisa is shown, situated
on an eminence between two mountains, which have the same
names as those in Thessaly, Ossa and Olympus. Some say,
that there was no such city as Pisa, for it would have been
one of the eight, but a fountain only, which is now called
Bisa, near Cicysium, the largest of the eight cities. But
Stesichorus calls the tract of country named Pisa, a city, as
the poet calls Lesbos, a city of Macar ; and Euripides in the
play of Ion says

" Euboea is a neighbour city to Athens,"
and so in the play of Rhadamanthus,

" they who occupy the land of EubcEa, an adjoining state ; "
thus Sophocles also in the play of the Mysi,

" 0 stranger, all this country is called Asia,
But the state of the Mysi is called Mysia."

32. Salmone is near the fountain of the same name, the
source of the Enipeus. It discharges itself into the Alpheius,
[and at present it is called Barnichius.^] Tyro, it is said,
was enamoured of this river ;

" who was enamoured of the river, the divine Enipeus." ^
for there her father Salmoneus was king, as Euripides says in
the play of ^olus. [The river in Thessaly some call Eniseus,
which, flowing from the Othrys, receives the Apidanus, that
descends from the mountain Pharsalus.^] Near Salmone is
Heracleia, which is one of the eight cities, distant about 40
stadia from Olympia on the river Cytherius, where there is
a temple of the nymphs, the loniades, who are believed to
heal diseases by means of the waters of the river.

Near Olympia is Arplna, which also is one of the eight
cities. The river Parthenius runs through it in the direction
of the road to Phersea. Pher^ea belongs to Arcadia. [It is
situated above Dymasa, Buprasium, and Elis, which lie to the
north of the Pisatis.'*] There also is Cicysium, one of the
eight cities ; and Dysppntium, on the road from Elis^to"
Olympia, situated ina plain. But it was razed, and the

• An interpolation. K. ^ Od. ii. 238.

^ An interpolation. Meineke. ♦ An interpolation. Groskurd.

B. VIII. C. III.

33. ELIS. 38

greatest part of the inhabitants removed to Epidamnus and
Apollonia.

Above and so very near Oljmpia, is Pholoe, an Arcadian
mountain, that the country at its foot belongs to the Pisatis.
Indeed the whole of the Pisatis and* a great part of Triphylia
border upon Arcadia. For this reason, most of the places, which
have the name of Pylian in the Catalogue of the Ships, seem to
be Arcadian. Persons, however, who are well informed, say,
that the river Erymanthus, one of those that empty them-
selves into the Alpheius, is the boundary of Arcadia, and that
the places called Pylian are beyond the Erymanthus.

33. According to Ephorus, "^tolus, being banished by

Salmoneus, king of the Epeii, and the Pisatae^ from Eleia to
jEtolia, called the country after his own name, and settled
the cities there. His descendant Oxylus was the friend of
Temenus, and the Heracleidae his companions, and was their
guide on their journey to Peloponnesus ; he divided among
them the hostile territory, and suggested instructions relative
to the acquisition of the country. In return for these services
he was to be requited by the restoration of Elis, which had be- ',
longed to his ancestors. He returned with an army collected 1
out of -^tolia, for the purpose of attacking the Epeii, who
occupied Elis. On the approach of the Epeii in arms, when the
forces were drawn up in array against each other, there ad-
vanced in front, and engaged in single combat according to an
ancient custom of the Greeks, Pyraechmes, an ^tolian, and
Degmenus, an Epeian : the latter was lightly armed with a
bow, and thought to vanquish easily from a distance a heavy-
armed soldier ; the former, when he perceif ed the stratagem
of his adversary, provided himself with a sling, and a scrip
filled with stones. The kind of sling also happened to have
been lately invented by the ^'Etolians. As a sling reaches its
object at a greater distance than a bow, Degmenus fell ; the
.-^tolians took possession of the country, and ejected the Epi
They assumed also the superintendence of the temple at
Olympia, which the Epeii exercised ; and on account of the
friendship which subsisted between Oxylus and the Heracleidge,
it was generally agreed upon, and confirmed by an oath, that
the Eleian territory was sacred to Jupiterj^iid that any one
who invaded that country with an army, was a sacrilci^icnis
person : he also was to be accounted sacrilegious, who did not

VOL. II. D

'•^ ;,H

,,J;^,/ l,..>'^

34 ty ^>.5-'' STRABO. 0 "^V Casaub. 358.

/defend it against the invader to the utmost of his power. It
was for this reason, that the later founders of the city left it
without walls, and those who are passing through the country
with an army, deliver up their arms and receive them again
upon quitting the bord,ers. Iphitus_ instituted there lEe]^!
Olympic games, because the Eleians were a sacred people.
Hence it was that they increased in numbers, for while other
nations were continually engaged in war with each other, they
alone enjoyed profound peace, and not themselves onlyTFut"

Isirangers also, so that on this accotwit they were a more
populous state than all the others.

^^ ' Theidofrthe Argive was the tenth in descent from Temenus,

and'SiBi&aostyowerftil • pi ince of hiS-Sge^ he was the inventor of
the weights and measures called Pheidonian, and stamped
money, silver in particular. He recovered the whole inherit-
ance of Temenus, which had been severed into many portions.
Jle attacked also the cities which Hercules had formerly taken,
an J" claimed the privilege of celebrating the games which
Hercules had established, and among these the Olympian — '
games. He entered their country by force and celebrated the ___
games, for the Eleians had no army to prevent it, as they were
in a state of peace, and the rest were oppressed by his power. ^
The Eleians however did not solemnly inscribe in their records

"this celebration of the games, but on this occasion procured ^
arms, and began to defend themselves. The Lacedaemonians
also afforded assistance, either because they were jealous of the
prosperity, which was the effect of the peaceful state of the
Eleians, or because they supposed that they should have the
aid of the Eleian* in destroying the power of Pheidon, who
had deprived them of the sovereignty {rjyefioviav) of Pelo-
ponnesus, which they before possessed. They succeeded in
their joint attempt to overthrow Pheidon, and the Eleians
with this assistance obtained possession of Pisatis and Tri-
phylia.

The whole of the coasting voyage along the present Eleian
territory comprises, with the exception of the bays, 1200
stadia.

So much then respecting the Eleian territory.

B. VIII. c. IV. 6 1. MESSENIA. 35

CHAPTER IV.

1.^ Messenia is continuous with the Eleian territory^ iaclin-
ing for the most part towards the south, and the Libyan Sea?" >
Being part of Laconia, it was subject in the Trojan times to
Menelaus. The name of the country was Messene. But the

present city called Messene, the acropolis of which was Ithome, .

was not then founded. After the death of Menelaus, when
the power of those who succeeded to the possession of Laco-
nia was altogether weakened, the Neleidoe governed Messenia.
At the time of the return of the Heracleidae, and according
to the partition of the country at that time, Melanthus was
king of the Messenians, who were a separate community, but
formerly .subject to Menelaus. As a proof of this, in the
space from the Messenian Gulf and the continuous gulf, (called
the Asinaean from the Messenian Asine,) were situated the
seven cities which Agamemnon promised to Achilles ;
" Cardamyle, Enope, the grassy Hira, the divine Pherae,* Antheia with
rich meadows, the beautiful .^peia, and Pedasus abounding with vines."*

He certainly would not have promised what did not belong
either to himself or to his brother. The poet mentions those,
who accompanied Menelaus from Pherae to the war,^ and speaks
of ((Etylus) in the Laconian catalogue, a city situated on the
Gulf of Messenia. -

Messene follows next to Triphylia. The promontory, after
which are the Coryphasium and Cyparissia, is common to
both. At the distance of 7 stadia is a mountain, the ^ga-
leum, situated above Coryphasium and the sea.

2. The ancient Messenian Pylus was a city lying below v^ yr-, f.(
the ^gaieum, and after it was razed, some of the inha- ^J,
bitants settled under the Coryphasium. But the Athenia5i~75(
in their second expedition against Sicily, under the command vV
of Eurymedon and Stratocles, got possession of it, and usedr- | '/
it as a stronghold against the Lacedaamonians.'* Here alSS
is the Messenian Cyparissia, (and the island Prote,) lying close

' The text of Homer gives the name of Pharis. ^ i\ jx. 150.

3 II. ii. 582.

* Thucydides, b. iv. ch. 2. The expedition was under the command
of Eurymedon and Sophocles. Stratocles being at the time archon at
Athens.

D 2

I /v.

>-N^'

5 ^V 36 STRABO. Casaub. 359.

/ :\^ to Pyliis, the island Spbagia, called also Sphacteria. If. was

s^ J here that the Lacedogmonians lost three hundred men,' who

were besieged by the Athenians and taken prisoners.

Two islands, called Strophades,^ belonging to the Cy-
parissii, lie off at sea in front of this coast, at the distance of
about 400 stadia from the continent, in the Libyan and south-
ern sea. According to Thucydides this Pylus was the naval
station of the Messenians. It is distant from Sparta 400 stadia.

3. Next is Methone.^ This city, called by the poet Peda-
sus, was one of the seven, it is said, which Agamemnon pro-
mised to Achilles. There Agrippa killed, in the Actian war.
Bogus, the king of the Maurusii, a partisan of Antony's,
having got possession of the place by an attack by sea.

4. Continuous with Methone is Acritas,^ where the Messe-
nian Gulf begins, which they call also Asinaeus from Asine, a
small city, the first we meet with on the gulf, and having the
same name as the Hermionic Asine.

This is the commencement of the gulf towards the west.
Towards the east are the Thyrides,^ as they are called, bor-
dering upon the present Laconia near Caenepolis,^ and Tae-
narum.

In the intervening distance, if we begin from the Thyrides,
we meet with QEtylus,"^ by some called Beitylus ; then Leuc-
trum, a colony of the Leuctri in Boeotia ; next, situated upon
a steep rock, Cardamyle;^ then Pheras, bordering upon Thu-
ria, and Gerenia, from which place they say Nestor had the
epithet Gerenian, because he escaped thither, as we have
mentioned before. They show in the Gerenian territory a
temple of -^sculapius Triccaeus, copied from that at the Thes-
salian Tricca. Pelops is said to have founded Leuctrum, and
Charadra, and Thalami, now called the Boeotian Thalami,
having brought with him, when he married his sister NiobcJ
to Amphion, some colonists from Boeotia.

' Thucydides, b. iv. ch. 38. The number was 292. ' Strivali.

2 According to Pausanias, Mothone, or Methone, was the Pedasus of
Homer. It is the modern Modon,

* Cape Gallo. The Gulf of Messenia is now the Gulf of Coron.

* The name Thyrides, the little gates, is probably derived from the
fable which placed the entrance of the infernal regions at Tsenarum, Cape
Matapan.

' For Cinsethitim I read Casnepolis, as suggested by Falconer, and ap-
proved by Coray. ^ Vitulo. • Scardamula.

B. viii. c. IV. § 5, 6. MESSENIA. 37

The Nedon, a different river from the Neda, flows through
Laconia, and discharges its waters near Pherae. It has upon
its banks a remarkable temple of the Nedusian Minerva. At
Poeaessa also there is a temple of the Nedusian Minerva,
which derives its name from a place called Nedon,^ whence,
they say, Teleclus colonized Poeaessa,^ and Echeiae, and
Tragium.

5. With respect to the seven cities promised to Achilles, we

have already spoken of Cardamyle, and Pherae, and Pedasus. '

Enope, some say is Pellana ; others, some place near Carda- 'f^^\04^%
myle ; others, Gerenia.^ Hira is pointed out near a mountain . ' t !*
in the neighbourhood of Megalopolis Mn.Ajcadia, on the road
to Andania, which we have said is called by the poet CEcha-
lia. Others say that the present Mesola was called Hira,
which extends to the bay situated between Taygetum and
Messenia. ^peia is now called Thuria, which we said bor-
dered upon Pherce. It is situated upon a lofty hill, whence
its name.^ The Thuriatic Gulf has its name from Thuria ;
upon the gulf is a single city, named Rhium, opposite Tsena-
rum. Some say that Antheia is Thuria, and ^peia Methone ;
others, that Antheia is Asine, situated between Methone and
Thuria, to which, of all the Messenian cities, the description,
" with its rich pastures," is most appropriate. Near it on the sea
is Corone. There are some writers who say that this town is
called Pedasus by the poet. These cities are " all near the
sea;" Cardamyle close to it; Pherae at the distance of 5
stadia, having an anchorage, which is used in the summer.
The rest are situated at unequal distances from the sea.

6. Near Corone, about the middle of the gulf, the river
Pamisus^ discharges itself, having, on the right hand, this
city, and the rest in succession, the last of which, towards the
west, are Pylus and Cyparissia, and between these is Erana,
which some writers erroneously suppose to be the ancient

' As Strabo remarks, in b. x., that the temple was built by Nestor on
his return from Troy, Falconer suggests that it might have derived its
name from the river Nedon, near Gerenia, the birth-place of Nestor.

'^ In the island of Cos.

3 According to Pausanias, Gerenia is the Enope of Homer.

* Hira in the time of Pausanias was called Abia (Pala^ochora ?). Some
interpreters of Homer were misled by the name of a mountain, Ira, near
Megalopolis, and placed there a city of the same name, but Hira was on
the sea-coast. * ^pys, aiTrvQ, lofty. ^ The Pirnatza.

38 . STRABO. Casaub. 361.

Arene ; on the left hand it has Thyria and Pherae. It is the
largest (in width) of the rivers within the isthmus, although
its course from its springs does not exceed 100 stadia in
length ; it has an abundant supply of water, and traverses the
Messenian plain, and the district called Macaria.^ It is dis-
tant from the present city of the Messenians 50 stadia.^ There
is also another Pamisus, a small torrent stream, running near
Leuctrum of Laconia, which was a subject of dispute between
the Messenians and Lacedaemonians in the time of Philip.

I have before said that some persons called the Pamisus,
Amathus.3

7. Ephorus relates that Cresphontes, after he had taken Mes-
sene, divided it into five cities, and chose Stenyclarus, situated
in the middle of this district, to be the royal seat of his king-
dom. To the other cities, Pylus, Rhium, (Mesola,) and
Hyameitis, he appointed kings, and put all the Messenians on
an equal footing with the Dorians as to rights and privileges.
The Dorians, however, taking offence, he changed his inten-
tion, and determined that Stenyclarus alone should have the
rank of a city, and here he assembled all the Dorians.

8. The city of the Messenians'* resembles Corinth, for above
each city is a lofty and precipitous mountain, enclosed by a
common wall in such a manner as to be used as an acropolis ;
the Messenian mountain is Ithome,^ that near Corinth is
Acrocorinthus. Demetrius of Pharos seemed to have coun-
selled Philip the son of Demetrius well, when he advised him
to make himself master of both cities, if he desired to get
possession of Peloponnesus ; " for," said he, " when you have
seized both horns, the cow will be your own ;" meaning, by
the horns, Ithome and Acrocorinthus, and, by the cow, Pelo-
ponnesus. It was no doubt their convenient situation which
made these cities subjects of contention. The Romans there-
fore razed Corinth, and again rebuilt it. The Lacedaemonians

* So called from its fertility.

"^ In the text 250, (tv, an error probably arising from the repetition of
t]ie preceding final letter.

3 The Pamisus above mentioned was never called the Amathus. There
were three rivers of this name, one near the Triphyliac Pylus, which was
also called Amathus ; a second at Leuctrum of Laconia ; and a third near
Messene.

* The ruins of Messene are now near the place called Mauromathia.
' Mount Vulkano.

B. VIII. c. IV. § 9, 10. MESSENIA. 39

destroyed Messene, and the Thebans, and subsequently Philip,
the son of Amyntas, restored it. The citadels however con-
tinued unoccupied.

9. The temple of Diana in Limnas (in the Marshes), where
the Messenians are supposed to have violated the virgins who
came there to oflfer sacrifice, is on the confines of Laconia and
Messenia, where the inhabitants of both countries usually ce-
lebrated a common festival, and performed sacrifices ; but after
the violation of the virgins, the Messenians did not make any
reparation, and war, it is said, ensued. The Limnaean temple of
Diana at Sparta is said to have its name from the Limnse here. f^^<^p-

10. There were frequent wars (between the Lacedaemonians {\ M
and Messenians) on account of the revolts of the Messenians. r-^^-'^
Tyrtseus mentions, in his poems, that their first subjugation

was in the time of their grandfathers ; ^ the second, when in
conjunction with their allies the Eleians [Arcadians], Ar-
gives, and Pisatas, they revolted ; the leader of the Arcadians
was Aristocrates, king of Orchomenus, and of the Pisatae,
Pantaleon, son of Omphalion. In this war, Tyrtaeus says, he
himself commanded the Lacedeemonian army, for in his elegiac
poem, entitled Eunomia, he says he came from Erineum ;
" for Jupiter himself, the son of Saturn, and husband of Juno with the
beautiful crown, gave this city to the Heracleidae, with whom we left the
windy Erineum, and arrived at the spacious island of Pelops."

Wherefore we must either invalidate the authority of the
elegiac verses, or we must disbelieve Philochorus, and Callis-
thenes, and many other writers, who say that he came from
Athens, or Aphidnae, at the request of the Lacedaemonians,
whom an oracle had enjoined to receive a commander from
the Athenians.

The second war then occurred in the time of Tyrtseus.
But they mention a third, and even a fourth war, in which the
Messenians were destroyed.^

^ The first war dates from the year b. c. 743, and continued 20 years.
The second, beginnmg from 682 b. c, lasted 14 years ; , the third con-
cluded in the year 456 b. c, with the capture of Ithome, which was the
citadel or fort of Messene. Diod. Sic. lib. xv. c. 66.

^ The Messenians, driven from Ithome at Uie-£nd .of the thirdwar, -
settled at Naupactus, which was given to them as a place of refuge by the —
Athenians, after the expulsion of the Locri-Ozolas. It is probable that ._
Strabo considers as a fourth war that which took place in the 94th Olym-
piad, when the Messenians were driven from Naupactus by the Laceda)-

monians and compelled to abandon Greece entirely.

40 STRABO. Casaijb. 362.

The whole voyage along the Messenian coast comprises
about 800 stadia, including the measurement of the bays.

11. I have exceeded the limits of moderation in this de-
scription, by attending to the multitude of facts which are re-
lated of a country, the greatest part of which is deserted.
Even Laconia itself is deficient in population, if we compare
its present state with its ancient populousness. For, with the
exception of Sparta, the remaining small cities are about
thirty ; but, anciently, Laconia had the name of Hecatompolis,
and that for this reason hecatombs were annually sacrificed.

CHAPTER V.

1. Next after the Messenian is theJLaconian Gulf, sjtuated
between Taenarum and Maleoe, declining a little Ifom the
south to the east. Thyrides, a precipitous rock, beaten by
the waves, is in the Messenian Gulf, and distant from Tasna-
rum 100 stadia. Above is Taygetum, a lofty and perpendi-
cular mountain, at a short distance from the sea, approaching
on the northern side close to the Arcadian mountains, so as to
leave between them a valley, where Messenia is continuous
with Laconia.

At the foot of Taygetum, in the inland parts, lie Sparta
and Amyclee,^ where is the temple of Apollo, and Pharis. The
_site of Sparta is in rather a hollow, although it_com£rises___
inountains within it ; no part of it, however, is marshy,
although, anciently, the suburbs were so, which were calleJ
Limnae. The temple of Bacchus, also in Limnse, was in a wet
situation, but now stands on a dry ground.

In the bay on the coast is Taenarum, a promontory pro-
jecting into the sea.2 Upoft it, in a grove, is the temple of •
Neptune, and near the temple a cave, through which, accord-
ing to the fable, Cerberus was brought up by Hercules from

^ Leake supposes Amyclae to have been situated between Iklavokhori
and Sparta, on the hill of Agia Kyriaki, half a mile from the Eurotas.
At this place he discovered on an imperfect inscription the letters AMY
following a proper name, and leaving little doubt that the incomplete word
was AMTKAAIOY. See Smith.

* Cape Matapan.

B. VIII. c. V. § 2, 3. LACONIA. 41

Hades. Thence to the promontory Phycus in Cyrenaica, is
a passage across towards the south of 3000 stadia ; and to
Pachynus, towards the west, the promontory of Sicily, 4600,
or, according to some writers, 4000 stadia ; to Malese, towards
the east, including the measurement of the bays, 670 stadia ;
to Onugnathus,^ a low peninsula a little within Maleae, 520
stadia. (In front of Onugnathus, at the distance of 40 stadia,
lies Cythera,^ an island with a good harbour, and a city of the
same name, which was the private property of Eurycles, the
commander of the Lacedaemonians in our time. It is sur-
rounded by several small islands, some near it, others lying
somewhat farther off.) To Corycus, a promontory of Crete,
the nearest passage by sea is 250 stadia.^

2. Next to Taenarum on the voyage to Onugnathus and to
Malese'* is Amathus, (Psamathus,) a city; then follow Asine,
and Gythium,^ the naval arsenal of Sparta, situated at an in-
terval of 240 stadia. Its station for vessels, they say, is ex-
cavated by art. Farther on, between Gythium and Acrasa, is
the mouth of the Eurotas.^ To this place the voyage along the
coast is about 240 stadia ; then succeeds a marshy tract, and
a village, Helos, which formerly was a city, according to Ho-
mer;

" They who occupied Amyclae, and Helos, a small town on the sea-coast." '
They say that it was founded by Helius the son of Perseus.
There is a plain also call Leuce ; then Cyparissia,^ a city
upon a peninsula, with a harbour ; then Onugnathus with
a harbour ; next Boea, a city ; then Maleae. From these
cities to Onugnathus are 150 stadia.- There is also, Asopus,^
a city in Laconia.

3. Among the places enumerated by Homer in the Cata-
logue of the Ships, Messa, they say, is no longer to be found ;
and that Messoa is not a part of Laconia, but a part of Sparta
itself, as was the Limnaeum near Thornax. Some understand

' The Ass's Jaw. It is detached from the continent, and is now the
island of Servi. ^ Cerigo. ^ 750 stadia. Groskurd.

* By others written in the singular number, Malea, now C. St. Angelo.
^ The site of Gythium is identified as between Marathonisi and Trinissa.
6 The Iri, or Vasili Potamo. ^ II. ii. 584.

8 Rupina, or Castel Rampano. The plain of Leuce is traversed by the
river Mario-revina.

* The site of Asopus appears, according to the ruins indicated in the
Austrian map, to have been situated a little to the north of Rupina.

42 STRABO.

Casaub. 364.

Messe to be a contraction of Messene, for it is said that this
was a part of Laconia. [Thej allege as examples from the
poet, the words " cri," and " do," and " maps," ^ and this pas-
sage also ;

^' The horses were yoked by Automedon and Alcimus," '

instead of Alcimedon. And the words of Hesiod, who uses
/3p7 for I3pidv and (ipiapov ; and Sophocles and lo, who have pq,
for pq.lLov ; and Epicharmus, Xi for X/av, and Supa/ca; for 'Zvpa-
Kovaai ; Empedocles also has o;// for o^tg (jUt a yiyvETai aju0O7-£pwv
otp or o-^lq)\ and Antimachus, ArifxrjrpoQ tol 'EXvmvirjg leprj 6\pf
and a\(pL for aX<piTov ; Euphorion has ^\ for rikoQ ; Philetes
has hfjujidtg eIq raXapovg XevKov ayovaiv ept for 'ipiov ; Aratus,
eIq avefiov he ret Trr]ha for to. TrrjdaXia ; Simmias, Dodo for
Dodona.]^

Of the rest of the places mentioned by the poet, some are
extinct ; of others traces remain, and of others the names are
changed, as Augeiae into JEgassd : [the city] of that name in
Locris exists no longer. With respect to Las, the Dioscuri
are said to have taken it by siege formerly, whence they had
the name of Lapersse, (Destroyers of Las^and Sophocles says
somewher^^-bjr- the 4wo Lapersae, by Eurotas, by the gods
— ift-ArgCfs' and Sparta." ' '~ ^" "

4. Ephorus says that the Heracleidae, Eurysthenes and
Procles, having obtained possession of Laconia, divided it into
six parts, and founded cities throughout the country, and as-
signed Amyclse to him who betrayed to them Laconia, and
who prevailed upon the person that occupied it to retire, on
certain conditions, with the Acheei, into Ionia. Sparta they re-
tained themselves as the royal seat of the kingdom. To the
other cities they sent kings, permitting them to receive what-
ever strangers might be disposed to settle there, on account of
the scarcity of inhabitants. Las was used as a naval station,
because it had a convenient harbour ; ^gys, as a stronghold,
from whence to attack surrounding enemies ; Phersea, as a
place to deposit treasure, because it afforded security from^ at-
tempts from without. * * * * that all the neighbouring
people submitted to the Spartiatas, but were to enjoy aiL^
equality of rights, and to have a share in the government and

' KpT, duj, p-a.-^, for KQiBriy Sa>p,a, p,a\pidiov. ^ II. xix. 392.

* ProbabJy an interpolation. * The text here is very corrupt.

B. VIII. c. V. § 5. LACONIA. 43

in the offices of state. They were called Heilotae. But AgiSj

the son of, Eurjsthenes, deprived them of the equality cf /f I i-
righiv^d ordered them to pay tribute to Sparta. The rest n^'^
submitted;- but the Heleii, who occupied Helos^reyoltedL^andTIL^/^
"Were^made prisoners in the course of the war ; they were a3^ -v-/7s
judged to be slaves, with the_£ondition^^that the, owner should ! C/10
not be allowed to givp thpm tb^J^ ^^^^^^^^Ji ^^^ s^^ them be-
yoad the boundaries of the country. This was called the war
of the Heilotae.^ Tiie system of Heilote-slavery, which con^:^~*
tinned from that time to the establishment of the dominion of
the Romans, was almost entirely the contrivance of Agis.
They were a kindjofjiublic^gtey^s^ the Lacedaemo-

nians assigned ISaHtations, and required from them peculiar
services.

5. With respect to the government of the Lacones, and the
changes which have taken place among them, many things,
as being well known, may be passed over, but some it may be
worth while to relate. It is said that the Achaean Phthiotag,
who, with Pelops, made an irruption into Peloponnesus, settled
in Laconia, and were so much distinguished for their valour,
that Peloponnesus, which for a long period up to this time
had the name of Argos, was then called Achasan Argos ; and
not Peloponnesus alone had this name, but Laconia also was
thus peculiarly designated. Some even understand the words
of the poet,

" Where was Menelaus, was he not at Achaean Argos ? " ^

as implying, was he not in Laconia ? But about the time of
the return of the Heracleidae, when Philonomus betrayed the
country to the Dorians, they removed from Laconia to the
country of the lonians, which at present is called Achaia. We
shall speak of them in our description of Achaia.

Those who were in possession of Laconia, at first conducted
themselves with moderation, but after they had intrusted to
Lycurgus the formation of a political constitution, they ac-
quired such a superiority over the other^Greeks, thatthey ,
alone obtained the sovereignty T)6tHnby seaanTTStidTanSTcoai.
tinned to be the chiefs~of the'^reeks, till the ThebaHsfaiid
soon afterwards the Macedonians, deprived tEeiai of this
cendency. ' "^

» l090 B. c. a Od. iii. 249, 251.

44 STRABO. Casaub. 365.

They did not however entirely submit even to these, but,
preserving their independence, were continually disputing the
sovereignty both with the other Greeks and with the Mace-
donian kings. After the overthrow of the latter by the
Romans, the Lacones living under a bad government at that
time, and under the power of tyrants, had given some slight
offence to the generals whom the Romans sent into the pro-
vince. They however recovered themselves, and were held
in very great honour. They remained free, and performed no
other services but those expected from allies. Lately how-
ever Eurycles^ excited some disturbances amongst them, having
abused excessively, in the exercise of his authority, the friend-
ship of Caesar. The government soon came to an end by the
death of Eurycles, and the son rejected all such friendships.
The Eleuthero-Lacones ^ however did obtain some regular
form of government, when the surrounding people, and espe-
cially the Heilotae, at the time that Sparta was governed by
tyrants, were the first to attach themselves to the Romans.

Hellanicus says that Eurysthenes and Procles regulated the
form of government, but Ephorus reproaches him with not
mentioning Lycurgus at all, and with ascribing the acts of the
latter to persons who had no concern in them ; to Lycurgus
only is a temple erected, and sacrifices are annually performed
in his honour, but to Eurysthenes and Procles, although they
were the founders of Sparta, yet not even these honours were
paid to them, that their descendants should bear the respective
appellations of Eurysthenidae and Procleidae.^ [The descend-
ants of Agis, however, the son of Eurysthenes, were called
Agides, and the descendants of Eurypon, the son of Procles,
were called Eurypontiadse. The former were legitimate
princes ; the others, having admitted strangers as settlers,
reigned by their means ; whence they were not regarded as
original authors of the settlement, an honour usually conferred
upon all founders of cities.]

* His character is discreditably spoken of by Josephus, Antiq. b. xvi.
c. 10, and Bell. Jud. b. i. c. 2G.

^ The cities of the Eleuthero-Lacones were at first 24 in number ; in
the time of Pausanias 18 only. They were kindly treated by Augustus,
but subsequently they were excluded from the coast to prevent communi-
cation with strangers. Pausanias, b. iii. c. 21.

' From hence to the end of the section the text is corrupt. See Groskurd
for an attempt to amend the text of the last sentence, which is here not
translated.

B. VIII. c. V. § 6, 7. LACONIA. 45

6. As to the nature of the places in Laconia and Messenia,
we may take the description of Euripides ; ^

*' Laconia has much land capable of tillage, but difficult to be worked,
for it is hollow, surrounded by mountains, rugged, and difficult of access
to an enemy."

Messenia he describes in this manner :

" It bears excellent fruit ; is watered by innumerable streams ; it affords
the finest pasture to herds and flocks ; it is not subject to the blasts of
winter, nor too much heated by the coursers of the sun ;"

and a little farther on, speaking of the division of the country
by the Heracleidae according to lot, the first was

" lord of the Lacaenian laud, a bad soil,"
the second was Messene,

" whose excellence no language could express ;"
and Tyrtaeus speaks of it in the same manner.

But we cannot admit that Laconia and Messenia are
bounded, as Euripides says,

" by the Pamisus,^ which empties itself into the sea ;"
this river flows through the middle of Messenia, and does not
touch any part of the present Laconia. Nor is he right, when
he says that Messenia is inaccessible to sailors, whereas it
borders upon the sea, in the same manner as Laconia.

Nor does he give the right boundaries of Elis ;
" after passing the river is Elis, the neighbour of Jove ;"
and he adduces a proof unnecessarily. For if he means the
present Eleian territory, which is on the confines of Messenia,
this the Pamisus does not touch, any more than it touches La-
conia, for, as has been said before, it flows through the middle
of Messenia : or, if he meant the ancient Eleia, called the Hol-
low, this is a still greater deviation from the truth. For after
crossing the Pamisus, there is a large tract of the Messenian
country, then the whole district of [the Lepreatas], and of the
[Macistii], which is called Triphylia ; then the Pisatis, and
Olympia ; then at the distance of 300 stadia is Elis.

7. As some persons write the epithet applied by Homer to
Lacedaemon, KrjTweaaav, and others KaisTaeaaav, how are we to
understand KrjTU)eaaa, whether it is derived from Cetos,^ or

' This quotation, as also the one which follows, are from a tragedy of
Euripides, now lost. * The Pirnatza.

' KiJTog. Some are of opinion that the epithet was applied to Lacedae-
mon, because fish of the cetaceous tribe frequented the coast of Laconia.

46 STRABO. Casaub. 367.

whether it denotes " large," which is most probable. Some
understand Kaieraeaaa to signify, " abounding with calamin-
thus ; " others suppose, as the fissures occasioned by earth-
quakes are called Cseeti, that this is the origin of the epithet.
Hence Caeietas also, the name of the prison among the Lace-
daemonians, which is a sort of cave. Some however say, that
such kind of hollows are rather called Coi, whence the ex-
pression of Homer, ^ applied to wild beasts, (prjpaiv opeakyoiaiVf
which live in mountain caves.^__Laconia however is subject tg,— ^
earthquakes, and some writers relate, that certain peaks of

"Taygetum have been broken otf by the shocks.'^ —

^ T.nfonin, p^ntfli"° f\h^ q"?^ries of valuablemarblej^ Those
of the Tsenarian marble in Taenarum^are ancient,^ and certain
persons, assisted by the wealth of the Romans, lately opened a
large quarry in Taygetum.

8. It appears from Homer, that both the country and the
city had the name of Lacedaemon ; I mean the country to-
gether with Messenia. When he speaks of the bow and
quiver of Ulysses, he says,

" A present from Iphitus Eury tides, a stranger, who met him in Lace-
daemon,"*

and adds,

" They met at Messene in the house of Ortilochus."
He means the country which was a part of Messenia.^ There
was then no difference whether he said " A stranger, whom he
met at Lacedasmon, gave him," or, "they met at Messene;"
for it is evident that Pheras was the home of Ortilochus :

" they arrived at Pherae, and went to the house of Diodes the son of Or-
tilochus," ^

namely, Telemachus and Pisistratus. Now Pherae"^ belongs to
Messenia. But after saying, that Telemachus and his friend
set out from Pherag, and were driving their two horses the
whole day, he adds,

» II. i. 268.

* This may have taken place a little before the third Messenian war,
B. c. 464, when an earthquake destroyed all the houses in Sparta, with
the exception of five. Diod. Sic. b. xv. c. 66 ; Pliny, b. ii. c. 79.

^ Pliny, b. xxxvi. c 18, speaks of the black marble of Tsenarus.

* Od. xxi. 13.

* Eustathius informs us that, according to some writers, Sparta and La-
cedaemon were the names of the two principal quarters of the city ; and
adds that the comic poet, Cratinus, gave the name of Sparta to the whole
of Laconia. ® Od. iii. 488. ^ C!ieramidi.

B. VIII. c.vi. § 1. ARGOLIS. 47

" The sun was setting ; they came to the hollow Lacedaemon (Kj^rwccrtraj/),
and drove their chariot to the palace of Menefeus.*' ^
Here we must understand the city ; and if we do not, the poet
says, that they journeyed from Lacedgemon to Lacedaemon.
It is otherwise improbable that the palace of Menelaus should
not be at Sparta ; and if it was not there, that Telemachus
should say,

*' for I am going to Sparta, and to Pylus,"'
for this seems to agree with the epithets applied to the coun-
try,3 unless indeed any one should allow this to be a poetical
licence ; for, if Messenia was a part of Laconia, it would be a
contradiction that Messene should not be placed together with
Laconia, or with Pylus, (which Was under the command of
Nestor,) nor by itself in the Catalogue of Ships, as though it
had no part in the expedition.

CHAPTER VL

I. After Maleae follow the Argolic and Hermionic Gulfs ;
the former extends as far as Scyllaeum,'* it looks to the east,
and towards the Cyclades ;^ the latter lies still more towards
the east than the former, reaching ^.gina and the Epidau-
rian territory.^ The Laconians occupy the first part of the
Argolic Gulf, and the Argives the rest. Among the places
occupied by the Laconians are Delium,^ a temple of Apollo, of

1 Od. iii. 487. ' Od. ii. 359.

3 The text to the end of the section is very corrupt. The following is
a translation of the text as proposed to be amended by Groskurd. The
epithet of Lacedaemon, hollow, cannot properly be applied to the country,
for this peculiarity of the city does not with any propriety agree with the
epithets given to the country ; unless we suppose the epithet to be a poet-
ical licence. For, as has been before remarked, it must be concluded
from the words of the poet himself, that Messene was then a part of La-
conia, and subject to Menelaus. It would then be a contradiction (in
Homer) not to join Messene, which took part in the expedition, with
Laconia or the Pylus under Nestor, nor to place it by itself in the Cata-
logue, as though it had no part in the expedition.

* Skylli. ' The islands about Delos.

* The form thus given to the Gulf of Hermione bears no resemblance
to modern maps.

^ Pausanias calls it Epidelium, now S. Angelo.

48 STRABO. Casaub. 368.

the same name as that in Boeotia ; Minoa, a fortress of the
same name as that in Megara ; and according to Artemidorus,
Epidaurus Limera;^ ApoUodorus, however, places it near
Cythera,^ and having a convenient harbour, {\ifxrjv, limen,) it
was called Limenera, which was altered by contraction to Li-
mera. A great part of the coast of Laconia, beginning im-
mediately from Maleas, is rugged. It has however shelters
for vessels, and harbours. The remainder of the coast has
good ports ; there are also many small islands, not worthy of
mention, lying in front of it.

2. To the Argives belong Prasiae,^ and Temenium^ where
Temenus lies buried. Before coming to Temenium is the dis-
trict through which the river Lerna flows, that having the same
name as the lake, where is laid the scene of the fable of the
Hydra. The Temenium is distant from Argos 26 stadia from
the sea-coast ; from Argos to Herseum are 40, and thence to
Mycenas 10 stadia.

Next to Temenium is Nauplia, the naval station of the
Argives. Its name is derived from its being accessible to
ships. Here they say the fiction of the moderns originated
respecting Nauplius and his sons, for Homer would not have
omitted to mention them, if Palamedes displayed so much
wisdom and intelligence, and was unjustly put to death; and
if Nauplius had destroyed so many people at Caphareus.^ But
the genealogy oiFends both against the mythology, and against
chronology. For if we allow that he was the son of Neptune,^
how could he be the son of Amymone, and be still living in
the Trojan times.

Next to Nauplia are caves, and labyrinths constructed in
them, which caves they call Cyclopeia.

^ The ruins are a little to the north of Monembasia, Malvasia, or Nau-
plia de Malvasia. ^ Cerigo.

' The ruins are on the bay of Rheontas. * Toniki, or Agenitzi.

* Napoli di Romagna. Nauplius, to avenge the death of his son Pala-
medes, was the cause of many Greeks perishing on their return from Troy
at Cape Caphareus in Euboea, famous for its dangerous rocks. The
modern Greeks give to this promontory the name of ^vXocpdyoQ, (Xylo-
phagos,) or devourer of vessels. Italian navigators call it Capo d'Oro,
■whii;h in spite of its apparent signification, Golden Cape, is probably a
transformation of the Greek word Caphareus.

• Strabo confounds Nauplius, son of Clytoreus, and father of Palame-
des, with Nauplius, son of Neptune and Amymone, and one of the
ancestors of Palamedes-

B. VIII. C. VI.

3—5. ARGOLIS. 49

3. Then follow other places, and after these the Hermionic
Gulf. Since the poet places this gulf in the Argive territory,
we must not overlook this division of the circumference of
this country. It begins from the small city Asine ; ^ then
follow Hermione,^ and Troezen.^ In the voyage along the
coast the island Calauria^ lies, opposite ; it has a compass of
30 stadia, and is separated from the continent by a strait of
4 stadia.

4. Then follows the Saronic Gulf ; some call it a Pontus or
sea, others a Porus or passage, whence it is also termed the
Saronic pelagos or deep. The whole of the passage, or Porus,
extending from the Hermionic Sea, and the sea about the
Isthmus (of Corinth) to the Myrtoan and Cretan Seas, has this
name.

To the Saronic Gulf belong Epidaurus,^ and the island in
front of it, ^gina ; then Cenchreae, the naval station of the
Corinthians towards the eastern parts ; then Schoenus,^ a har-
bour at the distance of 45 stadia by sea ; from Maleie the
whole number of stadia is about 1800.

At Schoenus is the Diolcus, or place where they draw the
vessels across the Isthmus : it is the narrowest part of it.
Near Schoenus is the temple of the Isthmian Neptune. At
present, however, I shall not proceed with the description of
these places, for they are not situated within the Argive ter-
ritory, but resume the account of those which it contains.

5. And first, we may observe how frequently Argos is
mentioned by the poet, both by itself and with the epithet de-
signating it as Achaean Argos, Argos Jasum, Argos Hippium,
or Hippoboton, or Pelasgicum. The city, too, is called Argos,

" Argos and Sparta" — '
those who occupied Argos

" and Tiryns ;" «
and Peloponnesus is called Argos,

" at our house in Argos," •
for the city could not be called his house ; and he calls the
whole of Greece, Argos, for he calls all Argives, as he calls
them Danai, and Achasans.

' Fornos. ^ Castri. « Damala. * I. Poros.

* A place near the ruins of Epidaurus preserves the name Pedauro. G.

• Scheno. ' II. iv. 52. » II. ii. 559. » II. i. 30.

VOL. II. T,

50 STRABO. Casaub. 369.

He distinguishes the identity of name by epithets ; he calls
Thessaly, Pelasgic Argos ;

" all who dwelt in Pelasgic Argos ;" *
and the Peloponnesus, the Achaean Argos ;

" if we should return to Achaean Argos ;" '
" was he not at Achaean Argos ?" ^

intimating in these lines that the Peloponnesians were called
peculiarly Achseans according to another designation.

He calls also the Peloponnesus, Argos Jasum ;
" if all the Achaeans throughout Argos Jasum should see you," *
meaning Penelope, she then would have a greater number of
suitors ; for it is not probable that he means those from the
whole of Greece, but those from the neighbourhood of Ithaca.
He applies also to Argos terms common to other places,
" pasturing horses," and " abounding with horses."

6. There is a controversy about the names Hellas and Hel-
lenes. Thucydides ^ says that Homer nowhere mentions Bar-
barians, because the Greeks were not distinguished by any
single name, which expressed its opposite. Apollodorus also
says, that the inhabitants of Thessaly alone were called Hel-
lenes, and alleges this verse of the poet,

" they were called Myrmidones, and Hellenes ;" *
but Hesiod, and Archilochus, in their time knew that they
were all called Hellenes, and Panhellenes : the former calls
them by this name in speaking of the Proetides, and says that
Panhellenes were their suitors ; the latter, where he says
" that the calamities of the Panhellenes centred in Thasus."

But others oppose to this, that Homer does mention Bar-
barians, when he says of the Carians, that they spoke a bar-
barous language, and that all the Hellenes were comprised in
the term Hellas ;

" of the man, whose fame spread throughout Hellas and Argos." ''
And again,

" but if you wish to turn aside and pass through Greece and the midst of
Argos." *

J II. ii. 681. 2 II. ix. 141. 3 Od. iii. 251.

* Od. xviii. 245. ^ Book i. 3. « II. ii. 684.

7 Od. i. 344. « Od. xv. 80.

B. VIII. c. VI. § 7, 8. ARGOLIS. 51

7. The greater part of the city of the Argives is situated in
a plain. It has a citadel called Larisa, a hill moderately for-
tified, and upon it a temple of Jupiter. Near it flows the Ina-
chus, a torrent river ; its source is in Lyrceium [the Arcadian
mountain near Cynuria]. We have said before that the
fabulous stories about its sources are the inventions of poets ;
it is a fiction also that Argos is without water —

" but the gods made Argos a land without water."
Now the ground consists of hollows, it is intersected by rivers,
and is full of marshes and lakes ; the city also has a copious
supply of water from many wells, which rises near the surface.

They attribute the mistake to this verse,
*' and I shall return disgraced to Argos (TroXydi^iov) the very thirsty." *
This word is used for iroXvirodriTov, or

" much longed after,"
or without the I for TroXvixpiop, equivalent to the expression
7ro\v(f)dopoy in Sophocles,

" this house of the Pelopidae abounding in slaughter," "^
[for TTpo'id-^ai and idxpai and 'i\pacrdai, denote some injury or
destruction ;

" at present he is making the attempt, and he will soon-destroy (i^/zerai)
the sons of the Acheei ;" ^

and again, lest

" she should injure (tai//y) her beautiful skin ;" *
and,

" has prematurely sent down, Trpota^f^ev, to Ades."* ] '

Besides, he does not mean the city Argos, for it was not
thither that he was about to return, but he meant Pelopon-
nesus, which, certainly, is not a thirsty land.

With respect to the letter ^, they introduce the conjunction
by the figure hyperbaton, and make an elision of the vowel,
so that the verse would run thus,

Kai Ksv IXeyxicfTog ttoXv d' i;//tov 'Apyog iKoifxriv,
that is, iroXvixpiov "Apyocrde iKoi/jrjv, instead of, elg "Apyog.

8. The Inachus' is one of the rivers, which flows through
the Argive territory ; there is also another in Argia, the

» II. iv. 171. 2 Sophocles, El. 10. ^ II. ii. 193.

* Od. ii. 376. ^ n [^ ^ 6 Probably an interpolation. Meineke.

"> The Planitza.

E 2

52 STRABO. Casaub. 371.

Erasinus. It has its source in Styraphalus in Arcadia, and in
the lake there called Stjmphalis, where the scene is laid of
the fable of the birds called Stymphalides, which Hercules
drove away by wounding them with arrows, and by the noise
of drams. It is said that this river passes under-ground, and
issues forth in the Argian territory, and waters the plain.
The Erasinus is also called Arsinus.

Another river of the same name flows out of Arcadia to
the coast near Buras. There is another Erasinus also in
Eretria, and one in Attica near Brauron.

Near Lerna a fountain is shown, called Amymone. The
lake Xerna, the haunt of the Hydra, according to the fable,
belongs to the Argive and Messenian districts. The ex-
piatory purifications performed at this place by persons guilty
of crimes gave rise to the proverb, " A Lerna of evils."

It is allowed that, although the city itself lies in a spot where
there are no running streams of water, there is an abundance
of wells, which are attributed to the Danai'des as their inven-
tion ; hence the line,

" the Danaides made waterless Argos, Argos the watered."
Four of the wells are esteemed sacred, and held in peculiar
veneration. Hence they occasioned a want of water, while
they supplied it abundantly.

9. Danaus is said to have built the citadel of the Argives.
He seems to have possessed so much more power than the
former rulers of the country, that, according to Euripides,

" he made a law that those who were formerly called Pelasgiotae, should
be called Danai throughout Greece."

His tomb, called Palinthus, is in the middle of the market-
place of the Argives. I suppose that the celebrity of this city
was the reason of all the Greeks having the name of Pelasgi-
otas, and Danai, as well as Argives.

Modern writers speak of lasidse, and Argos lasum, and
Apia, and Apidones. Homer does not mention Apidones, and
uses the word apia only to express distance. That he means
Peloponnesus by Argos we may conclude from these lines,

" Argive Helen ;" *
and,

" in the farthest part of Argos is a city Ephyra ;" ^

» II. vi. 623. 2 II. vi. 152.

B. VIII. c. Yi. § 10. ARGOLIS. 53

and,

" tlie middle of Argos ;" *
and,

"to rule over many islands, and the whole of Argos.'"''

Argos, among modern writers, denotes a plain, but not once
in Homer. It seems rather a Macedonian and Thessalian
use of the word.

10. After the descendants of Danaus had succeeded to the
sovereignty at Argos, and the Amythaonidas, who came from
Pisatis and Triphylia, were intermixed with them by mar-
riages, it is not surprising that, being allied to one another,
they at first divided the country into two kingdoms, in such a
manner that the two cities, the intended capitals, Argos and
Mycenas, were not distant from each other more than 50 stadia,
and that the Heraeum at Mycenas should be a temple common
to both. In this temple were the statues the workmanship of
Polycletus. In display of art they surpassed all others, but
in magnitude and cost they were inferior to those of Pheidias.

At first Argos was the most powerful of the two cities. Af-
terwards Mycenae received a great increase of inhabitants in
consequence of the migration thither of the Pelopidae. For when
everything had fallen under the power of the sons of Atreus,
Agamemnon, the elder, assumed the sovereign authority, and
by good fortune and valour annexed to his possessions a large
tract of country. He also added the Laconian to the Mycenaean
district.^ Menelaus had Laconia, and Agamemnon Mycenae,
and the country as far as Corinth, and Sicyon, and the terri-
tory which was then said to be the country of lones and
^gialians, and afterwards of Achasi.

After the Trojan war, when the dominionof Agamemnon was
at an end, the declension of Mycenae ensued, and particularly
after the return of the Heracleidae.'^ For when these people
got possession of Peloponnesus, they expelled its former mas-
ters, so that they who had Argos possessed Mycenae likewise,
as composing one body. In subsequent times Mycenae was
razed by the Argives, so that at present not even a trace is to
be discovered of the city of the Mycenaeans.^

' Od. i. 344. « II. ii. 108. 3 About 1283, b. c. " About 1190, a. c.

* Not strictly correct, as in the time of Pausanias, who lived about 150
years after Strabo, a large portion of the walls surrounding Mycenae still
existed. Even in modern times traces are still to be found.

54 8TRAB0. CA8AUH. 372.

If Mycenae experienced this fate, it is not surprising that
some of the cities mentioned in the Catalogue of the Ships,
and said to be subject to Argos, have disappeared. These are
the words of the Catalogue :

" They who occupied Argos, and Tiryns, with strong walls, and Hermione,
and Asine situated on a deep bay, and Eiones, and Epidaurus with its
vines, and the valiant Achican youths who occupied iEgina, and Mases." '

Among these we have already spoken of Argos ; we must now
speak of the rest.

11. ProDtus seems to have used Tiryns as a stronghold,
and to have fortified it by means of the Cyclopes. There
were seven of them, and were called Gasterocheires,^ because
they subsisted by their art. They were sent for and came
from Lycia. Perhaps the caverns about Nauplia, and the
works there, have their name from these people. The citadel
Licymna has its name from Licymnius. It is distant from
Nauplia about 12 stadia. This place is deserted, as well as the
neighbouring Midea, which is different from the Boeotian
Midea, for that is accentuated Midea, like irpdvoiaf but this is
accentuated Mid^a, like Tegea.

Prosymna borders upon Mid^a; it has also a temple of
Juno. The Argives have depopulated most of these for their
refusal to submit to their authority. Of the inhabitants some
went from Tiryns to Epidaurus ; others from Hermione to the
Halieis (the Fishermen), as they are called ; others were trans-
ferred by the Lacedajmonians to Messenia from Asine, (which
is itself a village in the Argive territory near Nauplia,) and
they built a small city of the same name as the Argolic Asine.
For the Laceda3monians, according to Theopompus, got pos-
session of a large tract of country belonging to otlier nations,
and settled there whatever fugitives they had received, who
had taken refuge among them ; and it was to this country the
Nauplians had retreated.

12. Hermione is one of the cities, not undistinguished.
The coast is occupied by Halieis, as they are called, a tribe
who subsist by being employed on the sea in fishing. There
is a general opinion among the Hermionenses that there is a
short descent from their country to Hades, and hence they do
not place in the mouths of the dead the fare for crossing the
Styx.

' II. ii. 559, ' From yaaTtjp, the belly, and x«tp> the hand.

H. VIII. c. VI. § 13, 14. ARQ0LI8. 65

13. It is said that Asine as well as Ilermione was inhabited
by Dryopos ; either Dryops the Arcadian having transferred
them thither from the places near the Spercheius, according
to Aristotle; or, Hercules expelled them from Doris near
Parnassus.

ScylljL'um near Hermione has its name, it is said, from
Scylla, daughter of Nisus. According to report, she was
enamoured of Minos, and betrayed to him Nisa^a. She was
(howned by order of her father, and her body was thrown
upon the shore, and buried here.

Eiones was a kind of village which the Mycensei depopu-
lated, and converted into a station for vessels. It was after-
wards destroyed, and is no longer a naval station.

14. Troozen is sacred to Neptune, • from whom it was
formerly called Poseidonia. It is situated 15 stadia from the
sea. Nor is this an obscure city. In front of its harbour,
called Pogon,'^ lies Calauria, a small island, of about 30 stadia
in compass. Here was a temple of Neptune, which served as
an asylum for fugitives. It is said that this god exchanged
Delos for Calauria with Latona, and Tajnarum for Pytho with
Apollo. Ephorus mentions the oracle respecting it :

" It is the same thing to possess Delos, or Calauria,
Tho divine Pytho, or the windy Tajnarum."

There was a sort of Amphictyonic body to whom tho con-
cerns of this temple belonged, consisting of seven cities, which
performed sacrifices in common. These were Ilermon, Epi-
daurus, iEgina, Athenae, Prasia?, Nauplia, and Orchomenus
Minyeius. The Argives contributed in behalf of Nauplia, and
the Lacedajmonians in behalf of Prasias. Tho veneration
for this god prevailed so strongly among the Greeks, that
the Macedonians, even when masters of the country, never-
theless preserved even to tho present titne the privilege of
the asylum, and were restrained by shame from dragging
away the suppliants who took refuge at Calauria. Archias
even, with a body of soldiers, did not dare to use force to De-

' Poseidon, or Neptune. This god, after a dispute with Minerva respect-
ing this place, held by order of Jupiter, divided possession of it with hen
Hence tho ancient coins of TroRzen b(!ar the trident and head of Minerva.

' Uojyvjv, pogon or beard. Probably tho name is derived from the form
of the harbour. Hence the proverb, ** Go to TroDzen," (nXtvaiiae dt
TpoiZrjva,) addressed to those who had little or no beard.

^^ STRABO. Casaub. 374.

mosthenes, although he had received orders from Antipater
to bnng him alive, and all other orators he could find who
were accused of the same crimes. He attempted persuasion
but in vain, for Demosthenes deprived himself of life by taking
poison in the temple.^ °

Troezen and Pittheus, the sons of Pelops, having set out
from Pisatis to Argos, the former left behind him a city of his
own name ; Pittheus succeeded him, and became king. An-
thes, who occupied the territory before, set sail, andfounded
Hahcarnassus. We shall speak of him in our account of
Caria and the Troad.

15. Epidaurus was called Epitaurus [Epicarus?]. Aris-
totle says, that Carians occupied both this place and Hermione,
but upon the return of the Heracleidge those lonians, who had
accompanied them from the Athenian Tetrapolis to Argos
settled there together with the Carians. '

Epidaurus 2 was a distinguished city, remarkable particu-
larly on, account of the fame of ^sculapius, who was sup-
posed to cure every kind of disease, and whose temple is
crowded constantly with sick persons, and its walls covered
with votive tablets, which are hung upon the walls, and con-
tain accounts of the cures, in the same manner as is practised
at Cos, and at Tricca. The city lies in the recess of the
Saronic Gulf, with a coasting navigation of 15 stadia, and its
aspect is towards the point of summer sun-rise. It is sur-
rounded with lofty mountains, which extend to the coast, so
that it is strongly fortified by nature on all sides.

Between Trcezen and Epidaurus, there was a fortress Me-
thana,3 and a peninsula of the same name. In some copies of
Thucydides Methone is the common reading,-* a place of the
sanae name with the Macedonian city, at the siege of which
Philip lost an eye. Hence Demetrius of Scepsis is of opinion,
that some persons were led into error by the name, and sup-
posed that it was Methone near Troezen. It was against this
town, it is said, that the persons sent by Agamemnon to levy
sailors, uttered the imprecation, that

" they might never cease to build walls,'*

' Plutarch, Life of Demosthenes. « Pidauro.

' Methana is the modern name.

* Thucyd. b. ii. c. 34. Methone is the reading of all manuscripts and
editions.

B. VIII. c. VI. § 16. ^GINA. 57

but it was not these people ; but the Macedonians, according
to Theopompus, who refused the levy of men ; besides, it is
not probable that those, who were in the neighbourhood of
Agamemnon, would disobey his orders.

16. ^gina is a place in the territory of Epidaurus. There
is in front of this continent, an island, of which the poet means
to speak in the lines before cited. Wherefore some write,

" and the island ^gina,"
instead of

" and they who occupied -<Egina,"

making a distinction between the places of the same name.

It is unnecessary to remark, that this island is among the
most celebrated. It was the country of ^acus and his de-
scendants. It was this island which once possessed so much
power at sea, and formerly disputed the superiority with the
Athenians in the sea-fight at Salamis during the Persian war.^
The circuit of the island is said to be about 180 stadia. It
has a city of the same name on the south-west. Around it
are Attica, and Megara, and the parts of Peloponnesus as far
as Epidaurus. It is distant from each about 100 stadia. The
eastern and southern sides are washed by the Myrtoan and
Cretan seas. Many small islands surround it on the side
towards the continent, but Belbina is situated on the side
towards the open sea. The land has soil at a certain depth,
but it is stony at the surface, particularly the plain country,
whence the whole has a bare appearance, but yields large crops
of barley. It is said that the ^ginetas were called Myrmi-
dones, not as the fable accounts for the name, when the ants
were metamorphosed into men, at the time of a great famine,
by the prayer of -^acus ; but because by digging, like ants,
they threw up the earth upon the rocks, and were thus made
able to cultivate the ground, and because they lived in ex-
cavations under-ground, abstaining from the use of bricks
and sparing of the soil for this purpose.

Its ancient name was CEnone, which is the name of two of
the demi in Attica, one near Eleutherae ;

" to inhabit the plains close to CEnone, (CEnoe,) and Eleutherae ;"
and another, one of the cities of the Tetrapolis near Marathon,
to which the proverb is applied,

" CEnone (CEnoe ?) and its torrent."

^ Herodotus, b. v. c. 83, and b. viii. c. 93.

^^ STRABO. Casaub. 875.

Its inhabitants were in succession Argives, Cretans, Epidauri-
ans, and Dorians. At last the Athenians divided the island by-
lot among settlers of their own. The Lacedsemonians, however,
deprived the Athenians of it, and restored it to the ancient in-
habitants.

The ^ginetae sent out colonists to Cydonia^ in Crete, and
to the Ombrici. According to Ephorus, silver was first struck
as money by Pheidon. The island became a mart, the inhabit-
ants, on account of the fertility of its soil, employing them-
selves at sea as traders ; whence goods of a small kind had
the name of "^gina wares."

17. The poet frequently speaks of places in succession as
they are situated ;

" they who inhabited Hyria, and Anlis ;" ^

" and they who occupied Argos, and Tiryns,

Hermione, and Asine,

Troezen, and Eiones."^

At other times he does not observe any order ;
" Schoenus, and Scolus,
Thespeia, and Grsea." *

He also mentions together places on the continent and islands ;

" they who held Ithaca,

and inhabited Crocyleia," *

for Crocyleia is in Acarnania. Thus he here joins with ^gina
Mases, which belongs to the continent of Argolis.

Homer does not mention Thyreae, but other writers speak
of it as well known. It was the occasion of a contest between
the three hundred Argives against the same number of Lace-
dasmonians ; the latter were conquerors by means of a strata-
gem of Othryadas. Thucydides places Thyreee in Cynuria,
on the confines of Argia and Laconia.^

Hysiee also is a celebrated place in Argolica ; and Cenchreas,
which lies on the road from Tegea to Argos, over the moun-
tain Parthenius, and the Creopolus."^ But Homer was not
acquainted with either of these places, [nor with the Lyr-
ceiura, nor Orneae, and yet they are villages in the Argian
territory ; the former of the same name as the mountain there ;
the latter of the same name as the Orneae, situated between
Corinth and Sicyon].^

* This colony must have been posterior to that of the Samians, the first
founders of Cydonia. ^ n j| 495^ 3 ji_ ^^ 559^

* II. ii. 497. 5 II, ii. 632. 6 Thucyd. ii. 27 ; iv. 56.
' A place not known. » Probably interpolated.

B. VIII. c. VI. ^ 18, 19. MYCEN^. 59

18. Among the cities of the Peloponnesus, the most celebrated
were, and are at this time, Argos and Sparta, and as their re-
nown is spread everywhere, it is not necessary to describe
them at length, for if we did so, we should seem to repeat
what is said by all writers.

Anciently, Argos was the most celebrated, but afterwards
the Lacedaemonians obtained the superiority, and continued to
maintain their independence, except during some short interval,
when they experienced a reverse of fortune.

The Argives did not admit Pyrrhus within the city. He
fell before the walls, an old woman having let a tile drop from
a house upon his head.

They were, however, under the sway of other kings. When
they belonged to the Achaean league they were subjected, to-
gether with the other members of that confederacy, to the
power of the Romans. The city subsists at present, and is
second in rank to Sparta.

19. We shall next speak of those places which are said, in
the Catalogue of the Ships, to be under the government of
Mycenae and Agamemnon : the lines are these :

" Those who inhabited Mycenae, a well-built city,

and the wealthy Corinth, and Cleonae well built,

and Orneiae, and the lovely Arsethyrea,

and Sicyon, where Adrastus first reigned,

and they who inhabited Hyperesia, and the lofty Gonoessa,

and Pellene, and ^gium,

and the whole range of the coast, and those who lived near the spacious

Helice." '

Mycenae exists no longer. It was founded by Perseus.
Sthenelus succeeded Perseus ; and Eurystheus, Sthenelus.
These same persons were kings of Argos also. It is said that
Eurystheus, having engaged, with the assistance of the Athe-
nians, in an expedition to Marathon against the descendants
of Hercules and lolaus, fell in battle, and that the remainder
of his body was buried at Gargettus, but his head apart from
it at Tricorythus^ (Corinth?), lolaus having severed it from
the body near the fountain Macaria, close to the chariot-road.
The spot itself has the name of " Eurystheus'-head."

Mycenae then passed into the possession of the Pelopidae,
who had left the Pisatis, then into that of the Heracleidae,

» II. ii. 569.

* Tricorythus in place of Corinth is the suggestion of Coray.

STRABO. Casaub. 377.

^ho were also masters of Argos. But after the sea-fight at
fealamis, the Argives, together with the Cleonsei, and the Te-
getse, invaded Mycenae, and razed it, and divided the territory
among themselves. The tragic writers, on account of the
proximity of the two cities, speak of them as one, and use the
name of one for the other. Euripides in the same play calls
the same city in one place Mycenae, and in another Argos as
m the Iphigeneia,! and in the Orestes.^

CleonjB is a town situated upon the road leading from Ar-
gos to Corinth, on an eminence, which is surrounded on all
sides by dwellings, and well fortified, whence, in my opinion,
Ueon« was properly described as "well built." There also
between Cleonae and Phlius, is Nemea, and the grove where
It was the custom of the Argives to celebrate the Nemean
games: here is the scene of the fable of the Nemean Lion,
and here also the village Bembina. Cleonse is distant from
Argos 120 stadia, and 80 from Corinth. And we have our-
selves beheld the city from the Acrocorinthus.
^. ^Q- Codntkjs^said^to^ be opulentJrom_ its mart. It is
f^^"^^^^ ^POPthe jgtl^Ba^a:— it con^^^djll^^^nffi^;^, or,a
War Am, the-mHer near Ital^y, and facilitates? bv ]-oo°^r. ^f ^^
s^shorta distance between them, an exchange of coTnmndiHpT

oTT-tJatih biidtj. ■ ^ Oliuiimrn

As the Sicilian strait, so formerly these seas were of diffi-
cult navigation, and particularly the sea above Malese, on ac-
count of the prevalence of contrary winds ; whence the com-
mon proverb,

" When you double Maleae forget your home."
.Jt.a^aa.JLi£sirable thing for the merchants coming from Asia,

^;2J'""- Ttinfri ^ nhnT -^li, ], lading at Corinth without

;_gHiM<^'iffa'^ to dfiiwblo Capo Malea?. For goods exported
from Peloponnesus, or imported by land, a toll was paid to
_3QHa.-^aduUiaainejeys^y the countp:^ This continued after-'*'

/terwards for ever, in after-times the^T enjoyed even additional
advantages, for the Isthmian games, which were celebrated
there, brought thither great multitudes of people. The-Bac-
\ ^iada^, a rich and numerous family, and of illustrious descent,
xlvA were tlieir.rulers, governed iha.state'.for, nearly two hundred
^^^^^^' ^"^ peaceably enjoyed the profits of the mart. " "Their
^J^vv^er jy as destroyed by CypSE*tlS,~iyh6 became king himself,
' Iph. Taur. 508 et seq. 2 Qrest. 98, 101, 1246.

B. VIII. c. Ti. § 21. CORINTH. 61

and his descendants continued to exist for three generations.
A proof of the wealth of this family is the offering which
Cjpselus dedicated at Olympia, a statue of Jupiter of beaten
gold.

Demaratus, one of those who had been tyrant at Corinth,
flying from the seditions which prevailed there, carried with
him from his home to Tyrrhenia so much wealth, that he be-
came sovereign of the city which had received him, and his
son became even king of the Romans.

Tbe-teffiple of Venus at Corinth was so rich, that it had
more_^than a thousand women consecrated to the service of thg
goddess, courtesans, whom both men and women had dedi-
cated as offerings to the goddess. The city was frequented
and^enriched. bv-4,be^^attltitULdes. who resorted thither on ac^_
_jiDaixLji£-th©s©~waaien. Masters of ships freely squandered
all their money, and hence the proverb,

" It is not in every man's power to go to Corinth." '
The answer is related of a courtesan to a woman who was
reproaching her with disliking work, and not employing her-
self in spinning ;

" Although I am what you see, yet, in this short time, I have aheady
finished three distaffs." ^

21. The position of the city as it is described by Hierony-
mus, and Eudoxus, and others, and from our own observation,
since its restoration by the Romans, is as follows.

That which is called the Acrocorinthus is -a lofty mountain^
^^e^pgndicular, and about three stadia a:hd a half in height.^
There is an ascent of 30 stadia, and it terminates in a sharp
point. The steepest part is towards the north. ,Belowitlies_
Jstfe^city in a plain of thejOarm of a trapezium, at the very toot"
ot^ the A ^.ynforiT^lt^na! The compass of the city itself was 40
stadia, and all that part which was not protected by the
-laQUatain.JKaa.Jortified^ by a- wall. Even the mountain it-
self, the Acrocorinthus, was comprehended within this wall,
wherever it would admit of fortification. As I ascended it,
the ruins of the circuit of the foundation were apparent, which
gave a circumference of about 85 stadia. The other sides of
the mountain are less steep ; hence, however, it stretches on-

^ Ov TzavTOQ dvSpbg ig KopivQov laB' 6 irXovg, which Horace has ele-
gantly Latinized, Non cviivis homini contingit adire Corinthum.
2 iarovg — distaffs ; also, masts and sailors.

^^ STRABO. vASAUB. 379.

wards, and is visible everywhere. The summit has u{)on it a
small temple of Venus, and below it is the fountain Peirene,
which has no efflux, but is continually full of M^ater, which is
transparent, and fit for drinking. They say, that from the
compression of this, and of some other small under-ground
veins, originates that spring at the foot of the mountain, which
runs into the city, and furnishes the inhabitants with a suf-
ficient supply of water. There is a large number of wells in
the city, and it is said in the Acrocorinthus also, but this I
did not see. When Euripides says,

" I come from the Acrocorinthus, well-watered on all sides, the sacred
hill and habitation of Venus,"

the epithet " well-watered on all sides," must be understood to
refer to depth ; pure springs and under-ground rills are dis-
persed through the mountain ; or we must suppose, that, an-
ciently, the Peirene overflowed, and irrigated the mountain.
There, it is said, Pegasus was taken by Bellerophon, while
drinking ; this was a winged horse, which sprung from the
neck of Medusa when the head of the Gorgon was severed
from the body. This was the horse, it is said, which caused
the Hippocrene, or Horse's Fountain, to spring up in Helicon
by striking the rock with its hoof.

Below Peirene is the Sisypheium, which preserves a large
portion of the ruins of a temple, or palace, built of white mar-
ble. From the summit towards the north are seen Parnassus
and Helicon, lofty mountains covered with snow ; then the
Crissaean Gulf,i lying below both, and surrounded by Phocis,
Boeotia, Megaris, by the Corinthian district opposite to Phocis,
and by Sicyonia on the west. * * * *
_ Abov£.allJhese are situated the Oneia^ mountains, asJhfijL^
.,.-^^iJalkdi.§xtendji^^ from

the Sceironides rocks, where the "road leads along them to
Attica.

^ 22. Lechagum is the commencement of the coast on one
side ; and on the other, Ceiichresej^j, vinagejnth^-.to
distant from the city about 70 stadia". The latter .serves for
the trade with-Asiajjnd Lechaeum for Jhat with Italy,_
Lech^um is situated l)elow the city, and is not well in-

* Strabo here gives the name of Crissaean Gulf to the eastern half of the
Gulf of Corinth.

* Of or belonging to asses.

B. VIII. c. VI. § 22. CORINTH. 63

habited. There are long walls of about 1 2 stadia in length,
stretching on each side of the road towards Lechaeum. The
sea-shore, extending hence to Pagae in Megaris, is washed by
the Corinthian Gulf. It is curved, and forms the Diolcus, or
the passage along which vessels are drawn over the Isthmus
to the opposite coast at Schoenus near Cenchreae.

Between Lechaeum and Pagae, anciently, there was the
oracle of the Acrsean Juno, and Olmiae, the promontory that
forms the gulf, on which are situated CEnoe, and Pagae ; the
former is a fortress of the Megarians ; and CEnoe is a fortress
of the Corinthians.

Next to Cenchreae ^ is Schoenus, where is the narrow part
of the Diolcus, then Crommyonia. In front of this coast lies
the Saronic Gulf, and the Eleusiniac, which is almost the same,
and continuous with the Hermionic. Upon the Isthmus is the
temple of the Isthmian Neptune, shaded above with a grove of
pine trees, where the Corinthians celebrated the Isthmian games.

Crommyon^ is a village of the Corinthian district, and form-
erly belonging to that of Megaris, where is laid the scene of
the fable of the Crommyonian sow, which, it is said, was the
dam of the Calydonian boar, and, according to tradition, the
destruction of this sow was one of the labours of Theseus.

Tenea is a village of the Corinthian territory, where there
was a temple of Apollo Teneates. It is said that Archias,
who equipped a colony for Syracuse, was accompanied by a
great number of settlers from this place ; and that this settle-
ment afterwards flourished more than any others, and at length
had an independent form of government of its own. When
they revolted from the Corinthians, they attached themselves
to the Romans, and continued to subsist when Corinth was
destroyed.

An answer of an oracle is circulated, which was returned
to an Asiatic, who inquired whether it was better to migrate
to Corinth ;

" Corinth is prosperous, but I would belong to Tenea ;

' The remains of an ancient place at the distance of about a mile atter
crossing the Erasinus, (Kephalari,) are probably those of Cenchreae. Smith.

2 Crommyon was distant 120 stadia from Corinth, (Thuc. iv. 45,) and
appears to have therefore occupied the site of the ruins near the chapel of
St. Theodoras. The village of Kineta, which many modern travellers
suppose to correspond to Crommyon, is much farther from Corintli than
120 stadia. Smith.

^^ STRABO. Casaub. 380.

which last word was perverted by some through ignorance,
and altered to Tegea. Here, it is said, Polybus brought up
QEdipus. ^

There seems to be some affinity between the Tenedii and
these people, through Tennus, the son of Cycnus, according
to Aristotle ; the similarity, too, of the divine honours paid
by both to Apollo affords no slight proof of this relationship.!
^^^.JiilSSEiSlhians^ when subject to Philip, jespoused his
.jm^y^J:y. .iSfialausIy^and individually conducted theniselves"
SQ contemptuously towards the Romans, that persons ventured
to throw down filth upon their ambassadors, when passing by
their houses. They were immediately punished for these and
other offences and insults. A large army was sent out under
the command of Lucius Mummius, who razed the city.^ The
rest of the country, as far as Macedonia, was subjected to the
Romans under different generals. The Sicyonii, however,
had the largest part of the Corinthian territory.

Polybius relates with regret what occurred at the capture
of the city, and speaks of the indifference the soldiers showed
for works of art, and the sacred offerings of the temples. He
says, that he was present, and saw pictures thrown upon the
ground, and soldiers playing at dice upon them. Among
others, he specifies by name the picture of Bacchus ^ by Aris-
teides, (to which it is said the proverb was applied, " Nothing
to the Bacchus,") and Hercules tortured in the robe, the gif^
of Deianeira.^ This I have not myself seen, but I have seen the
picture of the Bacchus suspended in the Demetreium at Rome,
a very beautiful piece of art, which, together with the temple,
was lately consumed by fire. The greatest number and the
finest of the other offerings in Rome were brought from Cor-
inth. Some of them were in the possession of the cities in
the neighbourhood of Rome. For Mummius being more

' According to Pausanias, the Teneates derive their origin from the
Trojans taken captive at the island of Tenedos. On their arrival in Pelo-
ponnesus, Tenea was assigned to them as a habitation by Agamemnon.

'■^ B. c. 146.

3 Aristeides of Thebes, a contemporary of Alexander the Great. At a
public sale of the spoils of Corinth, King Attalus offered so large a price
for the painting of Bacchus, that Mummius, although ignorant of art, was
attracted by the enormity of the price offered, withdrew the picture, in
spite of the protestations of Attalus, and sent it to Rome.

* This story forms the subject of the Trachiniae of Sophocles.

ftil

B. VIII. c. VI. § 23. COEINTH. SICYON. 66

brave and generous than an admirer of the arts, presented
them without hesitation to those who asked for them.^ Lu-
cuUus, having built the temple of Good Fortune, and a porti-
co, requested of Mummius the use of some statues, under the
pretext of ornamenting the temple with them at the time of
its dedication, and promised to restore them. He did not,
however, restore, but presented them as sacred oflferings, and
told Mummius to take them away if he pleased. Mummius
did not resent this conduct, not caring about the statues, but
obtained more honour than Lucullus, who presented them as
sacred offerings.

f\nvhn^ rpmmnprl n Inng ||Tr^e dcscrted, till at length it was 1 J
^r^d ^'^ fl^ff^v^t ^f its patural advantages by divus Caesar, (\0^
who sent colonists thither, who consisted, tor the most part, ot
the descendants of free-men.

On moving the ruins, and digging open the sepulchres,
an abundance of works in pottery with figures on them, and
many in brass, were found. The workmanship was admired,
and all the sepulchres were examined with the greatest care.
Thus was obtained a large quantity of things, which were
disposed of at a great price, and Rome filled with Necro-
Corinthia, by which name were distinguished the articles taken
out of the sepulchres, and particularly the pottery. At first
these latter were held in as much esteem as the works of the
Corinthian artists in brass, but this desire to have them did
not continue, not only because the supply failed, but because
the greatest p?rt of them were not well executed.^
^T^^TQ^^f^^f PnyinfTi w^°J^j:gfi P"^ ^f^llf^"^ ft all pcHods,
anri promlced a great number of staiesi»«»-«»d™i
here in particular, and at SIcyon, flourished painting, and
naodeliillg, and every art of this kind.

The^QiljffiaajiQt.y^ry fertile ; its surface was uneven and

' Mummius was so ignorant of the arts, that he threatened those who
were intrusted with the care of conveying to Rome the pictures and sta-
tHi^s taken at Corinth, to have them replaced by new ones at their ex-
pense, in case they should be so unfortunate as to lose them.

* The plastic' krt was invented at Sicyon by Dibutades ; according to
others, at the island of Samos, by Roecus and Theodorus. From Greece it
was carried into Etruria by Demaratus, who was accompanied by Eucheir
and Eugrammus, plastic artists, and by the painter Cleophantus of Cor-
inth, B. c. 663. See b. v. c. ii. § 2.

VOL. n. F

^ STRABO. Casaub. 382.

rugged, whence^l writers describe Corinth as full of brows
of hills, and apply llie"provefb, ~— — — -—

--------*'=€«riB^rTiserWt!iri5f bw^ hills, and sinks into hollows."

24. Orneae has the same name as the river which flows be-
side it. At present it is deserted ; formerly, it was well in-
habited, and contained a temple of Priapus, held in veneration.
It is from this place that Euphronius, (Euphorius ?) the author
of a poem, the Priapeia, applies the epithet Orneates to the
god.

It was situated above the plain of the Sicyonians, but the
Argives were masters of the country.

Arasthyrea^ is now called Phliasia. It had a city of the
same name as the country near the mountain Celossa. They
afterwards removed thence and built a city at the distance of
30 stadia, which they called Phlius.^ Part of the mountain
Celossa is the Carneates, whence the Asopus takes its rise,
which flows by Sicyon,^ and forms the Asopian district,
which is a part of Sicyonia. There is also an Asopus, which
flows by Thebes, and Plataea, and Tanagra. There is another
also in Heracleia Trachinia, which flows beside a village,
called Parasopii, and a fourth at Paros.

Phlius is situated in the middle of a circle formed by Sicy-
onia, Argeia, Cleonse, and Stymphalus. At Phlius and at
Sicyon the temple of Dia, a name given to Hebe, is held in
veneration.

25. Sicyon was formerly called Mecone, and at a still earlier
period, JEgiali. It was rebuilt high up in the country about
20, others say, about 12, stadia from the sea, upon an eminence
naturally strong, which is sacred to Ceres. The buildings
anciently consisted of a naval arsenal and a harbour.

Sicyonia is separated by the river Nemea from the Corinth-
ian territory. It was formerly governed for a very long pe-
riod by tyrants, but they were always persons of mild and
moderate disposition. Of these, the most illustrious was
Aratus, who made the city free, and was the chief of the
Achaeans, who voluntarily conferred upon him that power ;

» II. ii. 571.

' The rums are situated below the monastery Kesra.

^ Vasilika.

B. VIII. C. VII.

ACHAIA. 67

he extended the confederacy by annexing to it his own coun-
try, and the other neighbouring cities.

Hyperesia, and the cities next in order in the Catalogue of
the poet, and iEgialus,^ [or the sea-coast,] as far as Dyme, and
the borders of the Eleian territory, belong to the Achaeans.

CHAPTER VII.

1. The lonians, who were descendants of the Athenians,
were, anciently, masters of this country. It was formerly
called ^gialeia, and the inhabitants ^gialeans, but in later
times, Ionia, from the former people, as Attica had the name
of Ionia, from Ion the son of Xuthus.

It is said, that Hellen was the son of Deucalion, and that
he governed the country about Phthia between the Peneius
and Asopus, and transmitted to his eldest son these dominions,
sending the others out of their native country to seek a settle-
ment each of them for himself. Dorus, one of them, settled
the Dorians about Parnassus, and when he left them, they bore
his name. Xuthus, another, married the daughter of Erech-
theus, and was the founder of the Tetrapolis of Attica, which
consisted of QEnoe, Marathon, Probalinthus, and Tricorythus.

Achseus, one of the sons of Xuthus, having committed an
accidental murder, fled to Lacedaemon, and occasioned the in-
habitants to take the name of Achasans.^

Ion, the other son, having vanquished the Thracian army
with their leader Eumolpus, obtained so much renown, that
the Athenians intrusted him with the government of their
state. It was he who first distributed the mass of the people
into four tribes, and these again into four classes according to
their occupations, husbandmen, artificers, priests, and the
fourth, military guards ; after having made many more regu-
lations of this kind, he left to the country his own name.

' ^gialus was the most ancient name of Achaia, and was given to it
on account of the greater number of cities being situated upon the coast.
The Sicyonians, however, asserted that the name was derived from one
of their kings named iEgialeus.

' The story is narrated differently in Pausanias, b. vii. c. 1.
F 2

68 STRABO. Casaub. 383.

It happened at that time that the country had such an
abundance of inhabitants, that the Athenians sent out a colo-
ny of lonians to Peloponnesus, and the tract of country
which they occupied was called Ionia after their own name,
instead of JEgialeia, and the inhabitants lonians instead of
JEgialeans, who were distributed among twelve cities.

After the return of the Heracleidae, these lonians, being
expelled by the Achaeans, returned to Athens, whence, in con-
junction with the Codridae, (descendants of Codrus,) they sent
out the Ionian colonists to Asia.^ They founded twelve cities
on the sea-coast of Caria and Lydia, having distributed them-
selves over the country into as many parts as they occupied in
Peloponnesus.^

The Achaeans were Phthiotae by descent, and were settled at
Lacedaemon, but when the Heracleidae became masters of the
country, having recovered their power under Tisamenus, the
son of Orestes, they attacked the lonians, as I said before,
and defeated them. They drove the lonians out of the coun-
try, and took possession of the territory, but retained the
same partition of it which they found existing there. They
became so powerful, that, although the Heracleidae, from whom
they had revolted, occupied the rest of Peloponnesus, yet they
defended themselves against them all, and called their own
country Achaea.

From Tisamenus to Ogyges they continued to be governed
by kings. Afterwards they established a democracy, and ac-
<iuired so great renown for their political wisdom, that the
Italian Greeks, after their dissensions with the Pythagoreans,
adopted most of the laws and institutions of the Achaeans. After
the battle of Leuctra the Thebans ^ committed the disputes of
the cities among each other to the arbitration of the Achaeans.
At a later period their community was dissolved by the Mace-
donians, but they recovered by degrees their former power.
At the time of the expedition of Pyrrhus into Italy they be-

' About 1044 B. c.

2 The twelve cities were Phocaea, Erythrse/Clazomenae, Teos, Lebedos,
Colophon, Ephesus, Priene, Myus, Miletus, and Samos and Chios in the
neighbouring islands. See b. xiv. c i. § 3. This account of the expul-
sion of the lonians from Peloponnesus is taken from Polybius, b. ii. c.
41, and b. iv. c, 1.

^ And Lacedaemonians, adds Polybius, b. ii. c. 39.

B. vni. c. VII. § 2. ACHAIA. 69

gan with the union of four cities, among which were Patrae
and Djme.^ They then had an accession of the twelve cities,
with the exception of Olenus and Helice ; the former refused
to join the league ; the other was swallowed up by the waves.
2. For the sea was raised to a great height by an earth-
quake, and overwhelmed both Helice and the temple of the
Heliconian Neptune, whom the lonians still hold in great
veneration, and offer sacrifices to his honour. They celebrate
at that spot the Panionian festival.^ According to the con-
jecture of some persons, Homer refers to these sacrifices in
these lines,

" But he breathed out his soul, and bellowed, as a bull

Bellows when he is dragged round the altar of the Heliconian king."'

It is conjectured that the age '* of the poet is later than the
migration of the Ionian colony, because he mentions the Pani-
onian sacrifices, which the lonians perform in honour of the
Heliconian Neptune in the territory of Priene ; for the Pri-
enians themselves are said to have come from Helice ; a young
man also of Priene is appointed to preside as king at these
sacrifices, and to superintend the celebration of the sacred
rites. A still stronger proof is adduced from what is said by
the poet respecting the bull, for the lonians suppose, that sacri-
fice is performed with favourable omens, when the bull bel-
lows at the instant that he is wounded at the altar.

Others deny this, and transfer to Helice the proofs alleged
of the bull and the sacrifice, asserting that these things were
done there by established custom, and that the poet drew his
comparison from the festival celebrated there. Helice ^ was
overwhelmed by the waves two years before the battle of

* Patras and Paleocastro.

' This festival, Panionium, or assembly of all the lonians, was cele-
brated at Mycale, or at Priene at the base of Mount Mycale, opposite the
island of Samos, in a place sacred to Neptune. The lonians had a temple
also at Miletus and another at Teos, both consecrated to the Heliconian
Neptune. Herod, i. 148. Pausanias, b. vii. c. 24.

» II. XX. 403.

* The birth of Homer was later than the establishment of the lonians in
Asia Minor, according to the best authors. Aristotle makes him contem-
porary with the Ionian migration, 140 years after the Trojan war.

* jElian, De Natura Anim. b. ii. c. 19, and Pausanias, b. vii. c. 24,
25, give an account of this catastrophe, which was preceded by an earth-
quake, and was equally destructive to the city Bura. b. c. 373.

STRABO. Casaub. 384.

Leuctra. Eratosthenes says, that he himself saw the place,
and the ferrymen told him that there formerly stood in the
strait a brazen statue of Neptune, holding in his hand a hip-
pocampus,^ an animal which is dangerous to fishermen.
^ According to Heracleides, the inundation took place in his
time, and during the night. The city was at the distance
of 12 stadia from the sea, which overwhelmed the whole inter-
mediate country as well as the city. Two thousand men were
sent by the Acha-ans to collect the dead bodies, but in vain.
The territory was divided among the bordering people. This
calamity happened in consequence of the anger of Neptune,
for the lonians, who were driven from Helice, sent particularly
to request the people of Helice to give them the image of
Neptune, or if they were unwilling to give that, to furnish
them with the model of the temple. On their refusal, the
lonians sent to the Achaean body, who decreed, that they should
comply with the request, but they would not obey even this
injunction. The disaster occurred in the following winter,
and after this the Achaeans gave the lonians the model of the
temple.

Hesiod mentions another Helice in Thessaly.

3. The Achaeans, during a period of five and twenty years,
elected, annually, a common secretary, and two military chiefs.
Their common assembly of the council met at one place, called
Arnarium, (Homarium, or Amarium,) where these persons,
and, before their time, the lonians, consulted on public affairs.
They afterwards resolved to elect one military chief. When
Aratus held this post, he took the Acrocorinthus from Anti-
gonus, and annexed the city as well as his own country to
the Ach^an league.^ He admitted the Megareans also into
the body, and, having destroyed the tyrannical governments in
each state, he made them members, after they were restored
to liberty, of the Achjean league. ***** He freed, in a

^ The Syngathus Hippocampus of Linnaeus, from tTTTrof , a horse, and
Ka/xTTij, a caterpillar. It obtained its name from the supposed resemblance
of its head to a horse and of its tail to a caterpillar. From this is de-
rived the fiction of sea-monsters in attendance upon the marine deities.
It is, however, but a small animal, abundant in the Mediterranean.
The head, especially when dried, is like that of a horse. Pliny, b. xxxii.
c. 9—11. -^lian, De Nat. Anim. b. xiv. c. 20.

- This distinguished man was elected general of the Achaean League,
B.C. 245. ^

B. VIII. c. VII. § 4. ACHAIA. 71

short time, Peloponnesus from the existing tyrannies; thus
Argos, Hermion, Phlius, and Megalopolis, the largest of the
Arcadian cities, were added to the Achaean body, when they
attained their greatest increase of numbers. It was at this
time that the Romans, having expelled the Carthaginians
from Sicily, undertook an expedition against the Galatae,
who were settled about the Po.^ The Achaeans remained
firmly united until Philopoemen had the military command,
but their union was gradually dissolved, after the Romans
had obtained possession of the whole of Greece. The Ro-
mans did not treat each state in the same manner, but per-
mitted some to retain their own form of government, and dis-
solved that of others. * * * * *
« * * * * * *

[He then assigns reasons for expatiating on the subject of the
Achaeans, namely, their attainment of such a degree of power
as to be superior to the Lacedagmonians, and because they
were not as well known as they deserved to be from their im-
portance.] ^

4. The order of the places which the Achaeans inhabited, ac-
cording to the distribution into twelve parts, is as follows.
Next to Sicyon is Pellene ; ^geira, the second ; the third,
JEgsd, with a temple of Neptune ; Bura, the fourth ; then
Helice, where the lonians took refuge after their defeat by the
Achseans, and from which place they were at last banished ;
after Helice are ^gium, Rhypes, Patrae, and Phara ; then Ole-
nus, beside which runs the large river [Peirus ?] ; then Dyme,
and Tritseeis. The lonians dwelt in villages, but the Achaeans
founded cities, to some of which they afterwards united others
transferred from other quarters, as ^gae to JEgeira, (the in-
habitants, however, were called ^gaei,) and Olenus to Dyme.

Traces of the ancient settlement of the Olenii are to be
seen between Patrae and Dyme : there also is the famous tem-
ple of ^sculapius, distant from Dyme 40, and from Patrae 80
stadia.

In Euboea there is a place of the same name with the

* The expulsion of the Carthaginians from Sicily took place 241 b. c.
The war of the Romans against the Cisalpine Gauls commenced 224 b. c,
when the Romans passed the Po for the first time.

^ Text abbreviated by the copyist.

"^^ STRABO. Casatjb. 386.

-^gas here, and there is a town of the name of Olenus in
^tolia, of which there remain only vestiges.

The poet does not mention the Olenus in Achaia, nor many
Other people living near ^gialus, but speaks in general terms j

*' along the whole of iEgialus, and about the spacious Helice." *
But he mentions the iEtolian Olenus in these words j
" those who occupied Pleuron and Olenus." '^

He mentions both the places of the name of ^g£e; the
Achaean JEgae in these terms,

" who bring presents to Helice, and to ^gje." «

But when he says,

" ^gae, where his palace is in the depths of the sea,
There Neptune stopped his coursers," *

it is better to understand ^gae in Euboea; whence it is
probable the ^g£ean Sea had its name. On this sea, accord-
mg to story, Neptune made his preparations for the Troian
war. "^

Close to the Achaean ^gae flows the river Crathis,^ aug-
mented by the waters of two rivers, and deriving its name
from the mixture of their streams. To this circumstance the
river Crathis in Italy owes its name.

5.^ Each of these twelve portions contained seven or eight
demi, so great was the population of the country.

Pellene,6 situated at the distance of 60 stadia from the sea,
is a strong fortress. There is also a village of the name of
Pellene, whence they bring the Pellenian mantles, which are
offered as prizes at the public games. It lies between ^gium^
and Pellene. But Pellana, a different place from these, be-
longs to the Lacedaemonians, and is situated towards the ter-
ritory of Megalopolitis.

« II. ii. 576. « II. ii. 639. 8 II. viii 203.

* II. xiii. 21, 34.

* Kpa^tf— K(oa0^j/at. The Acrata. The site of ^g£e is probably the
Khan of Acrata. Smith.

« From the heights on which it was situated, descends a small river,
(the Crius,) which discharges itself into the sea near Cape Augo-
Campos.

' Vostitza.

B. viii. c. VII. § 5. ACHAIA. 73

^geira ' is situated upon a hill. Bura is at the distance
from the sea-coast of about 40 stadia. It was swallowed up
by an earthquake. It is said, that from the fountain Sybaris
which is there, the river Sybaris in Italy had its name.

Mga (for this is the name by which jEgae is called) is not
now inhabited, but the ^gienses occupy the territory. JEgium,
however, is well inhabited. It was here, it is said, that Ju-
piter was suckled by a goat, as Aratus also says,

" the sacred goat, -wliicli is said to have applied its teats to the lips of
Jupiter."^

lie adds, that,

"the priests call it the Olenian goat of Jupiter,"

and indicates the place because it was near Olenus. There
also is Ceryneia, situated upon a lofty rock. This place, and
Helice, belong to the ^gienses,^ and the iEnarium, [Homari-
um,]the grove of Jupiter, where the Achaeans held their con-
vention, when they were to deliberate upon their common affairs.

The river Selinus flows through the city of the ^gienses.
It has the same name as that which was beside Artemisium
at Ephesus, and that in Elis, which has its course along the
spot, that Xenophon'* says he purchased in compliance with
the injunction of an oracle, in honour of Artemis. There is
also another Selinus in the country of the Hybloei Mega-
tenses, whom the Carthaginians expelled.

Of the remaining Achaean cities, or portions, Rhypes is not
inhabited, but the territory called Rhypis was occupied by
^gienses and Pharians. jEschylus also says somewhere,

"the sacred Bura, and Rhypes struck with lightning."

Myscellus, the founder of Croton, was a native of Rhypes.
Leuctrum, belonging to the district Rhypis, was a demus
of Rhypes. Between these was Patrae, a considerable city,
and in the intervening country, at the distance of 40 sta-
dia from Patrae, are Rhium,^ and opposite to it, Antir-
rhium.^ Not long since the Romans, after the victory at Ac-
tium, stationed there a large portion of their army, and at

* Leake places the port of ^geira at Maura-Litharia, the Black Rocks,
on the left of which on the summit of a hill are some vestiges of an an-
ient city, which must have been ^geira.

» Phoen. 163. ^ See above, § 8. ♦ Anab. v. 3. 8.

* Castel di Morea. * Castel di Runieli.

"^^ STRABO. Casaub. 387.

present it is very well peopled, since it is a colony of the
Romans. It has also a tolerably good shelter for vessels.
Next is Dyme,i a city without a harbour, the most westerly of
all the cities, whence also it has its name. It was formerly call-
ed Stratos.2 It is separated from Eleia at Buprasium by the
river Larisus,^ which rises in a mountain, called by some per-
sons ScoUis, but by Homer, the Olenian rock.

Antimachus having called Dyme Cauconis, some writers
suppose that the latter word is used as an epithet derived
from the Caucones, who extended as far as this quarter, as I
have said before. Others think that it is derived from a river
Caucon, in the same way as Thebes has the appellation of
Dircsean, and Asopian ; and as Argos is called Inachian, and
Troy, Simuntis."*

^ A little before our time, Dyme had received a colony con-
sisting of a mixed body of people, a remnant of the piratical
bands, ^yhose haunts Pompey had destroyed. Some he settled
at Soli in Cilicia, and others in other places, and some in this
spot.

Phara borders upon the Dymasan territory. The inhabit-
ants of this Phara are called Pharenses ; those of the Mes-
senian Phara, Pharatoe. In the territory of Phara there is a
fountain Dirce, of the same name as that at Thebes.

Olenus is deserted. It lies between Patrse and Dyme.
The territory is occupied by the Dymaei. Next is Araxus,^
the promontory of the Eleian district, distant from the isth-
mus 1000 stadia.

CHAPTER VIII.

1 . Arcadia is situated in the middle of Peloponnesus, and
contaiflaJ^he_greatest portion of the mounlainQus tract in thaiL___^

' Sun-set.

^ Gossellin suggests that the name Stratos was derived from a spot
called the Tomb of Sostratus, held in veneration by the inhabitants of
Dyme.

^ The Risso or Mana.

* From the fountain Dirce, and the rivers Asopus, Inachus, and
Simois.

* Cape Papa.

B. VIII. c. VIII. § 2. ARCADIA. '75

country. Its largest mountain is Cjllene.^ Its perpendicular
""Tieiftrt^ according to some writers, is 20, according to others,
about 15 stadia.

The Arcadian nations, as the Azanes, and Parrhasii, and
other similar tribes, seem to be the most ancient people of
Greece.^

In consequence of the complete devastation of this country,
it is unnecessary to give a long description of it. The cities,
although formerly celebrated, have been destroyed by con-
tinual wars ; and the husbandmen abandoned the country at
the time that most of the cities were united in that called
Megalopolis (the Great City). At present Megalopolis itself
has undergone the fate expressed by the comic poet ;

"the great city is a great desert."

^ There are rich pastures for cattle, and particularly for horses
"^and asses,^whicli are used as stallions. The race of Arcadian
horsesTsr^ell as the Argolic and Epidaurian, is preferred
before all others. The uninhabited tracts of country in -^tolia
and Acarnania are not less adapted to the breeding of horses
than Thessaly.

2. Man tinea owes its fame to Epaminondas, who conquered
the Lacedaemonians there in a second battle, in which he lost
his life.^

This city, together with Orchomenus, Herasa, Cleitor, Phe-
neus, Stymphalus, Msenalus, Methydrium, Caphyeis, and Cy-
naetha, either exist no longer, or traces and signs only of their
existence are visible. There are still some remains of Tegea,
and the temple of the Alaean Minerva remains. The latter
is yet held in some little veneration, as well as the temple of
the Lycaean Jupiter on the Lycaean mountain. But the places
mentioned by the poet, as

" Rhipe, and Stratia, and the windy Enispe,"

are difficult to discover, and if discovered, would be of no use
from the deserted condition of the country.

* Now bears the name of Zyria ; its height, as determined by theFrench
commission, is 7788 feet above the level of the sea. Smith.

' The Arcadians called themselves Autochthones, indigenous, and also
Proseleni, born before the moon ; hence Ovid speaking of them says,
" Luna gens prior ilia fuit.'*

» B. c. 371.

"^^ STRABO. CASAim. 389.

3. The mountains of note, besides Cyllene, are Pholoe,^ Lj-
caeum,2 Maenalus, and the Parthenium,^ as it is called, which
extends from the territory of Tegea to that of Argos.

4. We have spoken of the extraordinary circumstances re-
lative to the Alpheius, Eurotas, and the Erasinus, which
issues out of the lake Stymphalis, and now flows into the
Argive country.

Formerly, the Erasinus had no efflux, for the Berethra,
which tl^e Arcadians call Zerethra,'* had no outlet, so that the
city of the Stymphalii, which at that time was situated upon
the lake, is now at the distance of 50 stadia.

The contrary was the case with the Ladon, which was at
one time prevented running in a continuous stream by the
obstruction of its sources. For the Berethra near Pheneum,
through which it now passes, fell in in consequence of an
earthquake, which stopped the waters of the river, and af-
fected far down the veins which supplied its source. This
is the account of some writers.

Eratosthenes says, that about the Pheneus, the river called
Anias forms a lake, and then sinks under-ground into certain
openings, which they call Zerethra. When these are ob-
structed, the water sometimes overflows into the plains, and
when they are again open the water escapes in a body
from the plains, and is discharged into the Ladon ^ and the Al-
pheius,6 so that it happened once at Olympia, that the land
about the temple was inundated, but the lake was partly emp-
tied. The Erasinus^ also, he says, which flows by Stymphalus,
sinks into the ground under the mountain (Chaon ?), and re-
appears in the Argive territory. It was this that induced
Iphicrates, when besieging Stymphalus, and making no pro-
gress, to attempt to obstruct the descent of the river into the
ground by means of a large quantity of sponges, but desisted
in consequence of some portentous signs in the heavens.

Near the Pheneus there is also the water of the Styx, as it
is called, a dripping spring of poisonous water, which was
esteemed to be sacred.

So much then respecting Arcadia.

' Mauro vuni. » Mintha. 3 Partheni.

* Called Katavothra by modern Greeks.

* The Landona. « The Carbonaro. ' The Kephalari.

B. VIII. c. viii. § 5. AECADIA. 77

5.^ Polybius having said, that from Maleae towards the north
as far as the Danube the distance is about 10,000 stadia, is cor-
rected by Artemidorus, and not without reason ; for, accord-
ing to the latter, from Maleae to JEgium the distance is 1400
stadia, from hence to Cirrha is a distance by sea of 200 stadia ;
hence by Heraclea to Thaumaci a journey of 500 stadia ;
thence to Larisa and the river Peneus, 340 stadia; then
through Tempe to the mouth of the Peneus, 240 stadia ; then
to Thessalonica, 660 stadia; then to the Danube, through
Idomene, and Stobi, and Dardanii, it is 3200 stadia. Ac-
cording to Artemidorus, therefore, the distance from the
Danube to Maleae would be 6500. The cause of this differ-
ence is that he does not give the measurement by the shortest
road, but by some accidental route pursued by a general of an
army.

It is not, perhaps, out of place to add the founders men-
tioned by Ephorus, who settled colonies in Peloponnesus after
the return of the Heracleidae ; as Aletes, the founder of Cor-
inth ; Phalces, of Sicyon ; Tisamenus, of cities in Achaea ; Ox-
ylus, of Elis, Cresphontes, of Messene ; Eurysthenes and Pro-
cles, of Lacedaemon ; Temenus and Cissus, of Argos ; and
Agrajus and Deiphontes, of the towns about Acte.

* The following section is corrupt in the original ; it is translated ac-
cording to the corrections proposed by Kramer, Gossellin, «&c.

78 STRABO.

Casaub. 390.

BOOK IX.

SUMMARY.

Continuation of the geography of Greece. A panegyrical account of Athens.
A description of Boeotia and Thessaly, with the sea-coast.

CHAPTER I.

1. Having completed the description of Peloponnesus,
which we said was the first and least of the peninsulas of
which Greece consists, we must next proceed to those which
are continuous with it.^

We described the second to be that which joins Megaris
to the Peloponnesus [so that Crommyon belongs to Megaris,
and not to the Corinthians] ;2 the third to be that which is
situated near the former, comprising Attica and Boeotia, some
part of Phocis, and of the Locri Epicnemidii. Of these we
are now to speak.

Eudoxus says, that if we imagine a straight line to be
drawn towards the east from the Ceraunian Mountains to
Sunium, the promontory of Attica, it would leave, on the
right hand, to the south, the whole of Peloponnesus, and on
the left, to the north, the continuous coast from the Ceraunian

' The peninsulas described by Strabo, are :

1. The Peloponnesus, properly so called, bounded by the Isthmus of
Corinth.

2. The peninsula bounded by a line drawn from Pagae to Nisaea, and
including the above.

3. The peninsula bounded by a line drawn from the recess of the
Crissaean Gulf, properly so called, (the Bay of Salona,) to Thermopylae,
and includes the two first.

4. The peninsula bounded by a line drawn from the Ambracic Gulf
to Thermopylae and the Maliac Gulf, and includes the three former.

5. The peninsula bounded by a line drawn from the Ambracic Gulf
to the recess of the Thermaic Gulf, and contains the former four penin-
sulas.

' These words are transposed from after the word Epicnemidii, as sug-
gested by Cramer.

B. IX. c. I. § 2, 3. ATTICA. 79

Mountains to the Crisaeau Gulf, and the whole of Megaris
and Attica. He is of opinion that the shore which extends
from Sunium to the Isthmus, would not have so great a curva-
ture, nor have so great a bend, if, to this shore, were not
added the parts continuous with the Isthmus and extending
to the Hermionic Bay and Acte ; that in the same manner
the shore, from the Ceraunian Mountains to the Gulf of
Corinth, has a similar bend, so as to make a curvature, form-
ing within it a sort of gulf, where Rhium and Antirrhium
contracting together give it this figure. The same is the
case with the shore about Crissa and the recess, where the
Crissaean Sea terminates.^

2. As this is the description given by Eudoxus, a mathe-
matician, skilled in the delineations of figures and the in-
clinations of places, acquainted also with the places them-
selves, we must consider the sides of Attica and Megaris,
extending from Sunium as far as the Isthmus, to be curved,
although slightly so. About the middle of the above-men-
tioned line 2 is the Piraeus, the naval arsenal of the Athenians.
It is distant from Schoenus, at the Isthmus, about 350 stadia ;
from Sunium 330. The distance from the Piraeus to Pagas^
and from the Piraeus to Schoenus is nearly the same, yet the
former is said to exceed the latter by 10 stadia. After having
doubled Sunium, the navigation along the coast is to the
north with a declination to the west.

3^...A^te_( Attica) is washed by two seas; it is at first
narrow, then it widens towards the middle, yeFlt, neverlTie-^"
less, takes a lunated bend towards Oropus in Boeotia, having
the convex side towards the sea. This is the second, the
eastern side of Attica.

The remaining side is that to the north, extending from
the territory of Oropus towards the west, as far as Megaris,
and consists of the mountainous tract of Attica, having a
variety of names, and dividing Boeotia from Attica ; so that,
as I have before remarked, Boeotia, by being connected with

' The Crissaean Gulf, properly so called, is the modern Bay of Salona.
But probably Strabo (or rather Eudoxus, whose testimony he alleges) in-
tended to comprehend, under the denomination of Crissaean, the whole
gulf, more commonly called Corinthian by the ancients, that is, the gulf
which commenced at the strait between Rhium and Antirrhium, and of
which the Crissaean Gulf was only a portion. The text in the above
passage is very corrupt.

^ From Sunium to the Isthmus. ^ Libadostani.

80 STRABO. Casaub. 391.

two seas, becomes the Isthmus of the third peninsula, which
we have mentioned before, and this Isthmus includes within
it the Peloponnesus, Megaris, and Attica. For this reason
therefore the present Attica was called by a play upon the
words Acta and Actica, because the greatest part of it lies
under the mountains, and borders on the sea ; it is narrow,
and stretches forwards a considerable length as far as Suni-
um. We shall therefore resume the description of these
sides, beginning from the sea-coast, at the point where we
left off.

4. After Crommyon, rising above Attica, are the rocks
called Scironides, which afford no passage along the sea-side.
Over them, however, is a road which leads to Megara and
Attica from the Isthmus. The road approaches so near the
rocks that in many places it runs along the edge of precipices,
for the overhanging mountain is of great height, and impass-
able.

Here is laid the scene of the fable of Sciron, and the
Pityocamptes, or the pine-breaker, one of those who infested
with their robberies the above-mentioned mountainous tract.
They were slain by Theseus.

The wind Argestes,' which blows from the left with
violence, from these summits is called by the Athenians
Sciron.

After the rocks Scironides there projects the promontory
Minoa, forming the harbour of Nissea. Nisaea is the arsenal
of Megara, and distant 18 stadia from the city ; it is join-
ed to it by walls on each side.^ This also had the name of
Minoa.

5. In former times the lonians occupied this country, and
were also in possession of Attica, before the time of the
building of Megara, wherefore the poet does not mention
these places by any appropriate name, but when he calls all
those dwelling in Attica, Athenians, he comprehends these
also in the common appellation, regarding them as Athenians ;
so when, in the Catalogue of the Ships, he says,

" And they who occupied Athens, a well-built city,"^

' N. W. by W., i W.

' Literally, " by legs on each side." Nisaea was united to Megara, as
the Piraeus to Athens, by two long walls. ^ n j^^ r^^Q^

B. IX. c. I. § 6, 7. ATTICA. 81

we must understand the present Megarenses also, as having
taken a part in the expedition. The proof of this is, that
Attica was, in former times, called Ionia, and las, and when
the poet says,

" There the Boeoti, and laones," ^

he means the Athenians. But of this Ionia Megaris was a
part.

6. Besides, the Peloponnesians and lonians having had fre-
quent disputes respecting their boundaries, on which Crom-
myonia also was situated, assembled and agreed upon a spot
of the Isthmus itself, on which they erected a pillar having
an inscription on the part towards Peloponnesus,

"this is TELOPONNESUS, not IONIA ;'*

and on the side towards Megara,

"this is not PELOPONNESUS, BUT IONIA."

Although those, who wrote on the history of Attica,^ differ
in many respects, yet those of any note agree in this, that
when there were four Pandionidae, ^geus, Lycus, Pallas,
and Nisus ; and when Attica was divided into four .por-
tions, Nisus obtaineiJ,'by lot, Megaris, and founded NisaeaT
TP1iiloChtyrugr"saysrihar^his government extencTpd' from' tl?e
Isthmus to Pythium,^ but according to Andron, as far as
Eleusis and the Thriasian plain.

Since, then, different writers give different accounts of the
division of the country into four parts, it is enough to adduce
these lines from Sophocles where ^geus says,

"My father determined that I should go away to Acta, having assigned
to me, as the elder, the best part of the land ; to Lycus, the opposite gar-
den of Eubcea ; for Nisus he selects the irregular tract of the shore of
Sciron ; and the rugged Pallas, breeder of giants, obtained by lot the part
to the south."*

Such are the proofs which are adduced to show that Me-
^ garis was a part of Attica.

7. After the returu-of-the Heraclidae, and the partition of
the country, many of the former possessors were banished from
their own land hj the Heraclidse, and by the Dorians, who
came with them, and migrated to Attica. Among these was
Melanthus, the king of Messene. He was voluntarily ap-

' II. xiii. 685. ' See note to vol. i. page 329.

' This place is unkno-vvn. ■* From a lost tragedy of Sophocles.

VOL. II. o

'^r

82 STRABO. Casavb. 393.

pointed king of the Athenians, after having overcome in
single combat, Xanthus, the king of the Boeotians. When
Attica became populous by the accession of fugitives, the
HeraclidaB were alarmed, and invaded Attica, chiefly at the
instigation of the Corinthians and Messenians; the former
of whom were influenced by proximity of situation, the latter
by the circumstance that Codrus, the son of Melanthus, was
at that time king of Attica. They were, however, defeated
in battle and relinquished the whole of the country, except
the territory of Megara, of which they kept possession, and
founded the city Megara, where they introduced as inhabit-
ants Dorians in place of lonians. They destroyed the pillar
also which was the boundary of the country of the lonians
and the Peloponnesians.

8. The city of the Megarenses, after having experienced
many changes, still subsists. It once had schools of philoso-
phers, who had the name of the Megaric sect. They suc-
ceeded Euclides, the Socratic philosopher, who was by birth a
Megarensian, in the same manner as the Eleiaci, among whom
was Pyrrhon, who succeeded Phaedon, the Eleian, who was also
a Socratic philosopher, and as the Eretriaci succeeded Mene-
demus the Eretrean.

MegaxiSyJike^Attica, is very g^ATMlp^^^^nJ th^ g^'f'ater part of
it is occuBJgdbywhat argnmlled the Oneii mountain5^_,au-kitt4
of ridge, whichTeXlendltig fromTHe^cironides rocks to Boeotia
and to Cithaeron, separates the sea at Nisasa from that near
Pagae, called the Alcyonian Sea.

9. In sailing from Nisaea to Attica there lie, in the course
of the voyage, five small islands. Then succeeds Salamis,
which is about 70, and according to others, 80, stadia in
length. It has two cities of the same name. The ancient
city, which looked towards ^gina, and to the south, as
JEschylus has described it ;

"^gina lies towards the blasts of the south : "

it is uninhabited. The other is situated in a bay on a spot of a
peninsular form contiguous to Attica. In former times it
had other names, for it was called Sciras, and Cychreia, from
certain heroes ; from the former Minerva is called Sciras ;
hence also Scira, a place in Attica ; Episcirosis, a religious
rite ; and Scirophorion, one of the months. From Cychreia

B. IX. c. J.§ 10. ATTICA. 83

the serpent Cychrides had its name, which Hesiod says
Cychreus bred, and Eurylochus ejected, because it infested
the island, but that Ceres admitted it into Eleusis, and it be-
came her attendant. Salamis was called also Pityussa from
" pitys," the pine tree. The island obtained its renown from
the ^acidae, who were masters of it, particularly from Ajax,
the son of Telamon, and from the defeat of Xerxes by the
Greeks in a battle on the coast, and by his flight to his own
country. The ^ginetae participated in the glory of that en-
gagement, both as neighbours, and as having furnished a con-
siderable naval force. [In Salamis is the river Bocarus, now
called Bocalia.] ^

10. At present the Athenians possess the island Salamis.
In former times they disputed the possession of it with the
Megarians. Some allege, that Pisistratus, others that
Solon, inserted in the Catalogue of Ships immediately after
this verse,

" Ajax conducted from Salamis twelve vessels," ^
the following words,

" And stationed them by the side of the Athenian forces ;"

and appealed to the poet as a witness, that the island origin-
ally belonged to the Athenians. But this is not admitted by
the critics, because many other lines testify the contrary.
For why does Ajax appear at the extremity of the line not
with the Athenians, but with the Thessalians under the com-
mand of Protesilaus ;

*' There were the vessels of Ajax, and Protesilaus." ^
And Agamemnon, in the Review* of the troops,

" found the son of Peteus, Menestheus, the tamer of horses, standing,
and around were the Athenians skilful in war : near stood the wily
Ulysses, and around him and at his side, the ranks of the Cephalleni ; " *

and again, respecting Ajax and the Salarainii ;

" he came to the Ajaces,***

and near them,

'• Idomeneus on the other side amidst the Cretans," '

not Menestheus. The Athenians then seem to have alleired

"o"-

» Probably interpolated. = II. ii. 557. " II. xiii. 681.

* II. iv. 327. 5 II. iv. 273. « II. iii. 230.

G 2

84 STRABO. Casaub. 394.

some such evidence as this from Homer as a pretext, and the
Megarians to have replied in an opposite strain of this kind ;
'' Ajax conducted ships from Salamis, from Polichna, from ^girussa,
from Nisaea, and from Tripodes,"'

vrhich are places in Megaris, of which Tripodes has the name
of Tripodiscium, situated near the present forum of Megara.

11. Some say, that Salamis is unconnected with Attica, be-
cause the priestess of Minerva Polias, who may not eat the
new cheese of Attica, but the produce only of a foreign
land, yet uses the Salaminian cheese. But this is a mis-
take, for she uses that which is brought from other islands,
that are confessedly near Attica, for the authors of this
custom considered all produce as foreign which was brought
over sea.

It seems as if anciently the present Salamis was a separate
state, and that Megara was a part of Attica.

On the sea-coast, opposite to Salamis, the boundaries of
Megara and Attica are two mountains called Cerata, or
Horns.2

9. Next is the ojt^Eleusis,^ in which isjhe temple of the
Eleusinian Ceres, and the MysticJbjnclosure ("Secos)^,^ whigk^.
Ictinjos buiit,^ capable of containingThe crowd of a theatre.
It was~tliTs person that built ^ the Parthenon in the Acropolis,
in honour of Minerva, when Pericles was the superintendent
of the public works. The city is enumerated among the
demi, or burghs.

13. Then follows the Thriasian plain, and the coast, a
demus of the same name,"^ then the promontory Amphiale,^
above which is a stone quarry ; and then the passage across
the sea to Salamis, of about 2 stadia, which Xerxes en-
deavoured to fill up with heaps of earth, but the sea-fight .
and the flight of the Persians occurred before he had ac-
complished it.

1 II. ii. 557.

2 These horns, according to Wheler, are two pointed rocks on the sum-
mit of the mountain situated between Eleusis and Megara. On one of these
rocks is a tower, called by the modern Greeks Cerata or Kerata-Pyrga.

^ Lepsina. * 'LrjKOQ. ^ KUTeffKevaaev.

^ Ittoitjo-e. Ictinus was also the architect of the temple of Apollo
Epicurius near Phigalia in Arcadia.

^ Thria.

8 Scaramandra ; from the height above .-Egaleos, Xerxes witnessed
the battle of Salamis.

B. IX. c. I. § 14—16. ATTICA. 85

There also are the Pharmacussae,^ two small islands, in the
larger of which is shown the tomb of Circe.

14. Above this coast is a mountain called Corydallus, and
the demus Corjdalleis : then the harbour of Phoron, (Robbers,)
and Psyttalia, a small rocky desert island, which, according to
some writers, is the eye-sore of the Piraeus.

Near it is Atalanta, of the same name as that between
Euboea and the Locri ; and another small island similar to
Psyttalia i thenthePirgus, which is also reckoned among the_

L5. The Munychia is__a hill in the shape of a^eniufmln
hollow, and a great part of it excavated both by^atureand
"art, soas^o serve for dwellings, with an entrance by a nar-
— jQw opening. Beneath it are three harbours. J^'ormerly the
Munychia was surrounded by a wall, and occupied by dwell-
ings, nearly in the same manner as the city of the Rhodians,
comprehending within the circuit of the walls the Piraeus and
the harbours fulL-o£-mat^ria1fi^for ship-Sufldlng ; ""TTere also
was the armoury, the work of Philon. "^'hp nniVnl^^ation
was capable of receiving the four hundred vessels ;^which
was the smallest number the Athenians were in the habit of
keeping in readiness for sea. With this wall were connected

i(V-\

Keepmg m reaainess lor sea. vv iin inis wan were connectea \ ^
the legs, that stretched out from the Asty. Thes&.werp tber /OclSIs^

lQng_walls,3Q- ^^^'^^^ ^" length, joining fhp^Asty^ in tlm-

Pirseus] TTi^ in POTisfr^iiT(Rnfp of frpqnpr^t wars, the wall and
t.hp. f()rt.ifip,ation_of_the Munychia were demolished ; the. .
Pir«>l]g ^^r'^'i rnntvsio.toAto flr-ftffiaitztnWh, extending round the
harbfturf^^ nnd thr tempk of Jupiter Soter. The small por-
ticoes of the temple contain admirable paintings, the work of
celebrated artists, and the hypaethrum, statues. The lon^
j^alls also* were destroyed, first demolished by the Lacedaemo-
"maSl'^HT^terwarHs by tlieTTonians, when feyiia took tke
"TiraBUS and the Asty by siege.^

16. What is properly the Asty is a rock, situated in a
plain, with dwellings around it. Upon the rock is the temple

^ Megala Kyra, Micra Kyra.

2 TO darv, the Asty, was the upper town, in opposition to the lower
town, of Piraeus. See Smith's Dictionary for a very able and interesting
article, At hence ; also Kiepert's Atlas von Hellas.

^ Sylla took Athens, after a long and obstinate siege, on the J st March,
B. c. 86. The city was given up to rapine and plunder.

86 STRABO. Casaub. 396.

of Minerva, and the ancient shrine of Minerva Polias, in
which is the never-extinguished lamp ; .andLlh£L-Earthenon,-
built_by Ictinus^JnjKhiclLisJhe Minerva, in ivory, the work
of Pheidias. ~~ "

-^"When, however, I consider the multitude of objects, so
celebrated and far-famed, belonging to this city, I am re-
luctant to enlarge upon them, lest what I write should depart
too far from the proposed design of this work.^ For the
words of Hegesias^ occur to me ;

" I behold the acropolis, there is the symbol of the great trident ; ^ I see
Eleusis ; I am initiated in the sacred mysteries ; that is Leoeorium ;* this
the Theseium.* To describe all is beyond my power, for Attica is the
chosen residence of the gods; and the possession of heroes its pro-
genitors."

Yet this very writer mentions only one of the remarkable
things to be seen in the Acropolis. Polemo Periegetes ^ how-
ever composed four books on the subject of the sacred offer-
ings which were there. Hegesias is similarly sparing of
remarks on other parts of the city, and of the territory : after
speaking of Eleusis, one of the hundred and seventy demi, to
which as they say four are to be added, he mentions no other
by name.

17. Many, if not all the demi, have various fabulous tales
and histories connected with them: with Aphidiia is con-
nected the rape of Helen by Theseus, the sack of the place by
the Dioscuri, and the recovery of their sister rjKith Maxa-

' Strabo thus accounts for his meagre description of the public build-
ings at Athens, for which, otherwise, he seems to have had no inclination.

2 Hegesias was an artist of great celebrity, and a contemporary of
Pheidias. The statues of Castor and Pollux by Hegesias, are supposed by
Winkelman to be "the same as those which now stand on the stairs lead-
ing to the Capitol, but this is very doubtful. Smith.

^ In the Erechtheium.

* The Heroum, or temple dedicated to the daughters of Leos, who were
offered up by their father as victims to appease the wrath of Minerva in
a time of pestilence. The position of the temple is doubtfully placed by
Smith below the Areiopagus.

* The well-known temple of Theseus being the best preserved of all
the monuments of Greece.

* An eminent geographer. He made extensive journeys through
Greece to collect materials for his geographical works, and as a collector
of inscriptions on votive offerings and columns, he was one of the earlier
contributors to the Greek Anthology. Smith.

B. IX. c. I. § 18, 19. ATTICA. 87

thon, the ha^^^, ypih^i.hp'. Persians ; at Rhamnus was the
statue of Nemesis, which, according to some writers, is the
work of Diodotus, according to others, of Agoracritqs, the
Parian, so well executed, both as to size and beautj, as to
rival the art of Pheidias. Deceleia was the rf^ndpzvQ'ig r^f fiia ^
p^|f^)pnnnp«ait^l]<i in the DeccHc war. From Phyle Thrasybu-
lus brought back the people to the Pirseus, and thence to the
Asty. Thus also much might be told respecting many other
places ; the Leocorium, the Theseium, and the Lyceum have
their own fables, and the Olympicum, called also the Olym-
pium, which the king, who dedicated it, left, at his death,
half finished ; so also much might be said of the Academia,
of the gardens of the philosophers, of the Odeium,^ of the
Stoa Poecile, [or painted Portico,] and of the temples in the
city, all of which contain the works of illustrious artists.

18. The account would be much longer if we were to in-
quire who were the founders of the city from the time of
Cecrops, for writers do not agree, as is evident from the names
of persons and of places. For example, Attica,^ they say,
was derived from Actaeon ; Atthis, and Attica, from Atthis,
the daughter of Cranaus, from whom the inhabitants had the
name Cranai ; Mopsopia from Mopsopus ; Ionia from Ion, the
son of Xuthus ; Poseidonia and Athense, from the deities of
that name. We have said, that the nation of the Pelasgi seem
to have come into this country in the course of their migra-
tions, and were called from their wanderings, by the Attici,
Pelargi, or storks.

19. In proportion as an earnest desire is excited to ascer-
tain the truth about remarkable places and events, and in
proportion as writers, on these subjects, are more numerous,
so much the more is an author exposed to censure, who does
not make himself master of what has been written. For ex-
ample, in "the Collection of the Rivers," Callimachus says,
that he should laugh at the person, who would venture to
describe the Athenian virgins as

• The Odeium was a kind of theatre erected by Pericles in the Ce-
ramic quarter of the city, for the purpose of holding musical meetings.
The roof, supported by columns, was constriicted out of the wreck of the
Persian fleet conquered at Salarais. There was also the Odeium of
Regilla, but this was built in the time of the Antonines.

^ The country was called Actica from Actaeos. Parian Chronicle.

88 STRABO. Casaub. 397.

" drinking of the pure waters of the Eridanus,"
from which even the herds would turn away. There are
indeed fountains of water, pure and fit for drinking, it is said,
without the gate called Diochares, near the Lyceium ; formerly
also a fountain was erected near it, which afforded a large sup-
ply of excellent water ; but if it is not so at present, is it at
all strange, that a fountain supplying abundance of pure and
potable water at one period of time, should afterwards have
the property of its waters altered ?

In subjects, however, which are so numerous, we cannot
enter into detail ; yet they are not so entirely to be passed
over in silence as to abstain from giving a condensed account
of some of them.

20. It will suffice then to add, that, according to Philo-

chorus, when the country was devastated on the side of the

sea by the Carians, and by land by the Boeotians, whom they

called Aones, Cecrops first settled a large body of people in

twelve cities, the names of which were Cecropia, Tetrapolis,

Epacria, Deceleia, Eleusis, Aphidna, (although some persons

write it in the plural number, Aphidnae,) Thoricus, Brauron,

Cytherus, Sphettus, Cephisia [Phalerus]. Again, at a sub-

. sequent period, Theseus is said to have collected the inhabit-

V ants of the twelve cities into one, the present city^r — ^

V Formerly, th^AthQniftf>s^wft p;nvprnfeid. bjr J^ing^s : they

tyrants were their masters, as Pisistratus an'd-^is sons • after-
wards therewas^an oligarchy both of the touTlmjaj^r^fr^d
of the thirty tyranrs, whom the ijacedaemonii set over them ;
these were expelled by the Athenians, who retained the form
of a democracy, till the Romans established their empire.
For, although they were somewhat oppressed by the Macedo-
nian kings, so as to be compelled to obey them, yet they pre- .
served entire the same form of government. Some say, that
the government was very well administered during a period
of ten years, at the time that Casander was king of the
Macedims^m. For this person, althougTiifi other respects
*~Tie was disposed to be tyrannical, yet, when he was master of
the city, treated the Athenians witlrkind«ess and generosity.
He placed at the head of the citizens Demetrius the Phalerean, "^
a disciple of Theophrastus the philosopher, who, far from
dissolving, restored the democracy. This appears from his

B. IX, c. I. § 21, 22. ATTICA. 89

memoirs, which he composed concerning this mode of govern-
ment. But so much hatred and dislike prevailed against
anything connected with oligarchy, that, after the death of
Casander, he was obliged to fly into Egypt. ^ The insurgents
pulled down more than three hundred of his statues, which
were melted down, and according to some were cast into
chamber-pots. The Romans, after their conquest, finding
them governed by a democracy,^ maintained their independ-
ence and liberty. During the Mithridatic war, the king set
over them such tyrants as he pleased. Aristio, who was the
most powerful of these persons, oppressed the city ; he was
taken by Sylla, the Roman general, after a siege,^ and put to
death. The citizens were pardoned, and, to this time, the
city enjoys liberty, and is respected by the Romans.

21. Next to the Pirseus is the demus Phalereis, on the suc-
ceeding line of coast, then Halimusii, ^xoneis, Alaeeis, the
jExonici, Anagyrasii ; then Theoris, Lampesis ; ^gilieis,
Anaphlystii, Azenieis ; these extend as far as the promontory
Sunium. Between the above-mentioned demi is a long
promontory. Zoster,"* the first after the ^xoneis ; then an-
other promontory after Thoreis, Astypalaea ; in the front of
the former of these is an island, Phabra,^ and of the latter an
island, Eleiissa,^ opposite the -^xoneis is Hydrussa. About
Anaphlystum is the Paneum, and the temple of Venus Colias.
Here, they say, were thrown up by the waves the last por-
tions of the wrecks of the vessels after the naval engagement
with the Persians near Salamis, of which remains Apollo pre-
dicted,

" The women of Colias shall shudder at the sight of oars."
In front of these places lies off, at no great distance, the island
Belbina ; and the rampart of Patroclus ; but most of these
islands are uninhabited.

22. On doubling the promontory at Sunium, we meet with
Sunium, a considerable demus ; then Thoricus, next a demus
called Potamus, from which the inhabitants are called Po-
tamii ; next Prasia,'^ Steiria, Brauron, where is the temple of

' Demetrius Phalereus was driven from Athens, 307 b. c, whence he
retired to Thebes. The death of Casander took place 298 b, c.

^ Aratus, the Achaean general, 245 b. c, drove from Attica the Lace-
daemonian garrisons, and restored liberty to the Athenians.

^ B. G. 87. * C. Halikes. * Falkadi. « Elisa. ' Raphti.

90 STRABO. Casaub. 399.

Diana Brauronia, Halse Araplienides, where is the temple
of Diana Tauropola; then Myrrhinus, Probalinthus, Mara-
thon, where Miltiades entirely destroyed the army of Datis
the Persian, without waiting for the Lacedaemonians, who de-
ferred setting out till the full moon. There is laid the scene
of the fable of the Marathonian bull, which Theseus killed.

Next to Marathon is Tricorynthus, then Rhamnus, where is
the temple of Nemesis ; then Psaphis, a city of the Oropii.
Somewhere about this spot is the Amphiaraeum, an oracle
once in repute, to which Amphiareus fled, as Sophocles says,

'* The dusty Theban soil opened and received him with his armour, and
the four-horse chariot."

Oropus has frequently been a subject of contention, for it is
situated on the confines of Attica and Boeotia.

In front of this coast, before Thoricum and Sunium, is
the island Helena ; it is rocky and uninhabited, extending in
length about 60 stadia, which, they say, the poet mentions in
the words, in which Alexander addresses Helen,

" Not when first I carried thee away from the pleasant Lacedeemon,
across the deep, and in the island Cranae embraced thee." '

For Cranae, from the kind of intercourse which took place
there, is now called Helena. Next to Helena,^ Euboea^
lies in front of the following tract of coast. It is long and
narrow, and stretching along the continent like Helena.
From Sunium to the southern point of Euboea, which is called
Leuce Acte,'* [or, the white coast,] is a voyage of 300 stadia,
but we shall speak hereafter of Euboea.

It would be tedious to recite the names of the Demi of
Attica in the inland parts, on account of their number.^

23. Among the mountains which are most celebrated, are

the Hymettus, Brilessus, Lycabettus, Parnes, and Corydallus.^

Near the city are excellent quarries of Hymettian and Pen-

telic marble. The Hymettus produces also the finest honey.

_^Jlhe- •9ik'€l^ -mines mJAttica &t JSrst of importance^ but,

— ai-« now "UA4««ftted.«»-Jl^^jaa3iito£.n, when the mines yielded

* II. iii. 443. 2 Macronisi. ' Negropont.

* From C. Colonna to C. Mantelo.

* Smith gives an alphabetical list of 160 demi,

* Monte San Giorgio.

B. IX. c. II. § 1. BCEOTIA. 91 '

a badjeturn to their labour^,£QjiMaftitte^4<>-^rtte'^i>ftmcfy4ho old ■■■
refuse and scoria, and hence obtained very pure silver, for^
Lhy ftjl'UlW WUrktaeirilM carrtedon the process in the furnace"^
unskilfully.

Although the Attic is the best of all the kinds of honey,
yet by far the best of the Attic honey is that found in the
country of the silver mines,' which they call acapniston, or un-
smoked, from the mode of its preparation.

24. Among the rivers is the Cephissus, having its source
from the Trinemeis, it flows through the plain (where are the
Gephyra, and the Gephyrismi) between the legs or walls ex-
tending from the Asty to the PiraBus, and empties itself into
the Phalericum. Its character is chiefly that of a winter
torrent, for in the summer time it fails altogether. Such
also, for the most part, is the Ilissus, which flows from the
other side of the Asty to the same coast, from the parts above
Agra, and the Lyceium, and the fountain celebrated by Plato
in the Phaedrus. So much then respecting Attica.

CHAPTER 11.

1. Next in order is Boeotia. When I speak of this country,
and of the contiguous nations, I must, for the sake of per-
spicuity, repeat what I have said before.

We have said, that the sea-coast stretches from Sunium to
the north as far as Thessalonica, inclining a little toward the
west, and having the sea on the east, that parts situated above
this shore towards the west extend like belts ^ parallel to one
another through the whole country. The first of these belts
is Attica with Megaris, the eastern side of which extends

* As Mount Hymettus was always celebrated for producing the best
honey, it would appear from this passage that there were silver mines in
it. It appears however that the Athenians had failed to discover silver
in Hymettus. It is not impossible that Strabo has adopted literally some
proverb or saymg of the miners, such as, " Ours is the best honey."

^ In the following description of Greece, Strabo employs the term belts
or bands (raiviag) for the territory intercepted between the lines forming
the peninsulas. See note, chap. i. § 1, of this book.

^^ STRABO. Casaub. 400.

from Sunium to Oropus, and Boeotia ; on the western side is
the isthmus, and the Alcyonian sea commencing at Pagse and
extending as far as the boundaries of Boeotia near Creusa,
the remaining two sides are formed by the sea-shore from
Sunium to the Isthmus, and the mountain tract nearly paral-
lel with this, which separates Attica from Boeotia.

The second belt is Boeotia, stretching from east to west
from the Euboean sea to the Crisaean Gulf, nearly of equal
length with Attica, or perhaps somewhat less ; in quality of
soil however it greatly surpasses Attica.

2. Ephorus declares the superiority of Boeotia over the
bordering nations not only in this respect, but also because it
alone has three seas adjoining it, and a great number of
harbours. At the Crisaean and Corinthian Gulfs it received
the commodities of Italy, Sicily, and Africa. Towards Eu-
boea the sea-coast branches off on each side of the Euripus ;
in one direction towards Aulis and Tanagrica, in the other,
to Salganeus and Anthedon ; on one side there is an open
sea to Egypt, and Cyprus, and the islands ; on the other to
Macedonia, the Propontis, and the Hellespont. He adds also
that Euboea is almost a part of Boeotia, because the Euripus is
very narrow, and the opposite shores are brought into commu-
nication by a bridge of two plethra in length.^

For these reasons he praises the country, and says, that it
has natural advantages for obtaining supreme command, but
that from want of careful education and learning, even those
who were from time to time at the head of affairs did not long
maintain the ascendency they had acquired, as appears from
the example of Epaminondas ; at his death the Thebans imme-
diately lost the supremacy they had just acquired. This is
to be attributed, says Ephorus, to their neglect of learning, and
of intercourse with mankind, and to their exclusive cultiva-
tion of military virtues. It must be added also, that learning
and knowledge are peculiarly useful in dealing with Greeks,
but in the case of Barbarians, force is preferable to reason. In
fact the Romans in early times, when carrying on war with
savage nations, did not require such accomplishments, but
from the time that they began to be concerned in transac-
tions with more civilized people, they applied themselves to
learning, and so established universal dominion.
* About 67 yards. See also b. x. ch. i. § 8.

B. IX. c. II. § 3, 4. BCEOTIA. 93

3. Boeotia was first occupied bj Barbarians, Aones, and
Temmices, a wandering people from Sunium, by Leleges, and
Hyantes. Then the Phoenicians, who accompanied Cadmus,
possessed it. He fortified the Cadmeian land, and trans-
mitted the government to his descendants. The Phoenicians
founded Thebes, and added it to the Cadmeian territory. They
preserved their dominion, and exercised it over the greatest
part of the Boeotians till the time of the expedition of the
Epigoni. At this period they abandoned Thebes for a short
time, but returned again. In the same manner when they
were ejected by Thracians and Pelasgi, they established their
rule in Thessaly together with the Arnjei for a long period,
so that all the inhabitants obtained the name of Boeotians.
They returned afterwards to their own country, at the time
the ^olian expedition was preparing at Aulis in Boeotia
which the descendants of Orestes were equipping for Asia.
After having united the Orchomenian tract to Boeotia (for
formerly they did not form one community, nor has Homer
enumerated these people with the Boeotians, but by them-
selves, calling them Minyse) with the assistance of the Orcho-
menians they drove out the Pelasgi, who went to Athens, a
part of which city is called from this people Pelasgic. The
Pelasgi however settled below Hyraettus. The Thracians
retreated to Parnassus. The Hyantes founded Hyampolis in
Phocis.

4. Ephorus relates that the Thracians, after making treaty
with the Boeotians, attacked them by night, when encamped
in a careless manner during a time of peace. The Thracians
when reproached, and accused of breaking the treaty, replied,
that they had not broken it, for the conditions were "by
day," whereas they had made the attack by night, whence
the common proverb, " a Thracian shuffle."

The Pelasgi and the Boeotians also went during the war to
consult the oracle. He cannot tell, he says, what answer was
given to the Pelasgi, but the prophetess replied to the Boeo-
tians that they would prosper by committing some act of
impiety. The messengers sent to consult the oracle suspecting
the prophetess of favouring the Pelasgi on account of their
relationship, (for the temple had originally belonged to the
Pelasgi,) seized the woman, and threw her upon a burning
pile, considering, that whether her conduct had been right or

94 STRABO. Casal-b. 402.

wrong, in either case they were right ; for if she had uttered
a deceitful answer she was duly punished ; but if not, they
had only complied with the command of the oracle. Those
in charge of the temple did not hke to put to death, particu-
larly in the temple, the perpetrators of this act without a
formal judgment, and therefore subjected them to a trial.
They were summoned before the priestesses, who were also the
prophetesses, being the two survivors out of the three. The
Boeotians alleged that there was no law permitting women to
act as judges ; an equal number of men were therefore chosen.
The men acquitted ; the women condemned. As the votes
were equal, those for acquittal prevailed. Hence at Dodona
it is to the Boeotians only that men deliver oracles. The
prophetesses however give a different meaning to the answer
of the oracle, and say, that the god enjoins the Boeotians to
steal the tripods used at home, and to send them annually to
Dodona. This they did, for they were in the habit of carry-
ing away by night some of the dedicated tripods, which they
concealed in their clothes, in order to convey them clandes-
tinely as offerings to Dodona.

5. After this they assisted Penthilus in sending out the
-^olian colony, and despatched a large body of their own peo-
ple with him, so that it was called the Boeotian colony.

A long time afterwards the country was devastated during
the war with the Persians at Plataeae. They afterwards so
far recovered their power, that the Thebans, having van-
quished the Lacedaemonians in two battles,^ disputed the sove-
reignty of Greece. Epaminondas, however, was killed, and
they were disappointed in their hope of obtaining this supre-
macy. They, nevertheless, fought in defence of the Greeks
against the Phoceeans, who had plundered their common tem-
ple. Reduced by this war, and by the Macedonians, at the
time they invaded Greece, they lost their city, which was
afterwards restored to them, and rebuilt by the Macedonians
themselves, who had razed it.^ From that period to our own

^ Leuctra and Mantineia.

' The Thebans, who were formerly the allies of the Macedonians, were
opposed to Philip of Macedon at the battle of Chaeroneia. On the acces-
sion to the throne of Alexander, the city was destroyed, b. c. 335 ; 6000
of the inhabitants were killed, and 30,000 sold as slaves. The city was
rebuilt, b. c. 316, by Casander. Pausanias, ix. 7. The ravages com-

6—8. BCEOTIA.

times their affairs have continued to decline, nor do they retain
the appearance even of a considerable village. Other cities
(of Boeotia) have experienced a similar fate, with the excep-
tion of Tanagra and Thespise, which in comparison with
Thebes are in a tolerable condition.

6. We are next to make a circuit of the country, beginning
at the sea-coast, opposite Euboea, which is continuous with
that of Attica.

We begin this circuit from Oropus, and the Sacred Har-
bour,^ which is called Delphinium, opposite to which is the
ancient Eretria in Euboea, having a passage across of 60
stadia. After Delphinium, at the distance of 20 stadia, is
Oropus, and opposite to this is the present Eretria.^ There
is a passage over to it of 40 stadia.

7. Next is Delium,3 a place sacred to Apollo, in imitation
of that at Delos. It is a small town of the Tanagraeans, at
the distance of 30 stadia from Aulis.

To this place the Athenians, after their defeat in battle,
fled in disorder.'* In the flight, Socrates the philosopher
(who having lost his horse, was serving on foot) observed
Xenophon, the son of Gryllus, upon the ground, fallen from
his horse ; he raised him upon his shoulders and carried him
away in safety, a distance of many stadia, until the rout was
at an end.

8. Then follows a great harbour, which is called Bathys
(or deep harbour) : then Aulis,^ a rocky spot, and a village
of the Tanagraeans, with a harbour capable of containing 50
small vessels. So that probably the naval station of the

mitted by Sylla in the war against Mithridates, which completed the final
ruin of Thebes, must have been fresh in the memory of Stfabo.

* Hieros Limen.

2 New Eretria stood at Paleocastro, and old Eretria at Vathy.
' Dramesi. * Athenaeus, v. 15.

* Livy states (xlv. 27) that Aulis was distant three miles from Chalcis ;
by Homer (II. ii. 303) it is called AvXtg TriTpriEaaa. About three miles
south of Chalcis, on the Boeotian coast, are two bays, separated from each
other by a rocky peninsula : the northern is small and winding, the south-
ern spreads out at the end of a channel into a large circular basin. The
latter harbour, as well as a village situated a mile to the southward of it,
is called Vathy, a name evidently derived from (3a9vQ Xifiriv. We may
therefore conclude that Aulis was situated on the rocky peninsula be-
tween these two bays. Leake and Smith.

^^ STRABO. Casaub. 403.

Greeks was in the Great Harbour. Near it is the Chalcidic
Euripus, to which, from Sunium, are 70 stadia. On the
Euripus, as I have already said, there is a bridge of two
plethra in length ; ^ at each end is a tower, one on the side of
Chalcis, the other on the side of Boeotia ; and a passage (for
the water) is constructed between them.^ With regard to the
tide of the Euripus, it is sufficient to say thus much, that ac-
cording to report, it changes seven times each day and night ;
the cause must be investigated elsewhere.

9. Salganeus is a place situated near the Euripus, upon a
height. It has its name from Salganeus, a Boeotian, who was
buried there. He was guide to the Persians, when they
sailed into this passage from the Maliac Gulf. It is said,
that he was put to death before they reached the Euripus, by
the commander of the fleet, Megabates, as a traitor, for con-
ducting the fleet deceitfully into a narrow opening of the sea,
having no outlet. The Barbarian, however, perceived his
mistake, and regretting what he had done, thought him wor-
thy of burial, because he had been unjustly put to death.

10. Near Oropus^ is a place called Graia, the temple also
of Amphiaraus, and the monument of Narcissus the Eretrian,
surnamed Sigelus, (the Silent,) because passers-by keep si-
lence. Some say that Graia and Tanagra* are the same.
The territory of Poemandris, however, is the same as that of
Tanagra. The Tanagreeans are also called Gephyrseans. The
temple of Amphiaraus was transferred by command of an
oracle to this place from the Thebaic Cnopia.

11. Mycalessus is a village in the Tanagrian district. It
lies upon the road from Thebes to Chalcis. It is called in
the Boeotian dialect Mycalettus. Harma, also, an uninhabited
village in the Tanagrian territory, derives its name from the

^ See above, c. ii. § 2.

' di(fKod6firiTaL d' elg avTovg avpiyli. The passage does not give a clear
explanation of the fact. Livy, b. xxviii. c. 6.

3 Thucydides, b. ii. ch. 23, says that Graia is on the road leading from
Oropus to Athens.

* In modern maps a modern town, Skoimandri, is laid down near the
ruins of Tanagra. Pausanias, b. ix. ch. 20, informs us why Tanagra was
called both Poimandria and Graia. Tanagra was the daughter of tEoIus
and wife of Poimandrus ; she arrived at such an extreme old age, as to
receive the title of Graia, the Old.

B. IX. c. II. § 12. B(EOTIA. 97

chariot (ap/za) of Amphiaraus, and is a different place from
Harma in Attica, near Phyle,' a demus of Attica bordering
upon Tanagra. There the proverb originated,

" When it has lightened through Harma,"

The Pytha'istae, as they are called, signify, by the order of an
oracle, the occurrence of any lightning when they are look-
ing in the direction of Harma, and despatch the sacrifice to
Delphi whenever it is observed. They were to keep watch
for three months, and for three days and nights in each month,
at the altar of Jupiter Astrapius, or Dispenser of lightning.
This altar is in the wall, between the Pythium and the Olym-
pium. Respecting the Boeotian Harma, some say, that Am-
phiaraus fell in battle out of his chariot, [harma,] near the
spot where his temple now stands, and that the chariot was
drawn empty to the place, which bears the same name
[ Harma]. ^ Others say, that the chariot of Adrastus, in his
flight, was there dashed in pieces, but that he himself escaped
on his horse Areion. According to Philochorus, his life was
preserved by the inhabitants of the village ; in consequence
of which they obtained among the Argives the right of citi-
zenship.

12. On going from Thebes to Argos,^ on the left hand is
Tanagra ; and [near the road] on the right lies Hyria. Hyria
now belongs to the Tanagrian territory, but formerly to the
Thebais. Here Hyrieus is fabled to have lived, and here is
the scene of the birth of Orion, which Pindar mentions in the
dithyrambics. It is situated near Aulis. Some persons say
that HysiaB is called Hyria, which belongs to Parasopia, situ-
ated below Cithaeron, near Erythras, in the inland parts ; it is
a colony of the Hyrienses, and was founded by Nycteus, the
father of Antiope. * There is also in the Argive territory a
village, Hysise, the inhabitants of which are called HysiataB.
Erythras in Ionia is a colony of this Erythras.

' Argyrokastro.

' The exact site of Harma is uncertain. Leake supposes it to have
occupied the important pass on the road from Thebes to Chalcis, leading
to the maritime plain. Pausanias, b. ix. ch. 19, says that it obtained its
name from the chariot of Amphiaraus having disappeared there.

' We should perhaps read Harma, says Kramer; but in that case
Tanagra of Boeotia would be upon the right hand. The reading Argos is
a manifest error, and the whole passage is corrupt.

VOL. II. H

98 STRABO. Casaub. 405

Heleon, a Tanagrian village, has its name from (Hele) the
marshes there.

13. After Salganeus is Anthedon, a city with a harbour,
the last on the Boeotian coast towards Euboea, as the poet
says,

" Anthedon at the extremity." *

As we proceed a little farther, there are besides two small
towns, belonging to the Boeotians, Larymna, near which fhe
Cephissus discharges its waters ; and farther above, Halee, of
the same name as the Attic demus. Opposite to this coast is
situated, it is said, JEgae^ in Euboea, where is the temple of
the ^gaean Neptune, of which we have before spoken. There
is a passage across from Anthedon to -^gae of 120 stadia, and
from the other places much less than this. The temple is
situated upon a lofty hill, where was once a city. Near JEgeB
was Orobiae.^ In the Anthedonian territory is the mountain
Messapius,'* which has its name from Messapus, who when he
came into lapygia called it Messapia. Here is laid the scene
of the fable respecting the Anthedonian Glaucus, who, it is
said, was transformed into a sea-monster.^

14. Near Anthedon is a place called Isus, and esteemed
sacred, belonging to Boeotia ; it contains remains of a city, and
the first syllable of Isus is short. Some persons are of opinion,
that the verse ought to be written, ^laov te ^aderjv 'Avdrjdova
T iayjXTOiiitjav,

"The sacred Isus, and the extreme Anthedon,"

lengthening the first syllable by poetical licence for the sake
of the metre, instead of Wiaav te i^adirjv,

" The sacred Nisa ; "

for Nisa is not to be found anywhere in* Boeotia, as Apollo-
dorus says in his observations on the Catalogue of the Ships ;

' II. ii. 508.

2 Leake supposes Mgx to have stood near Limni. Strabo, below, ch.
vii. § 4, says that probably the ^gsean Sea had its name from this place.

^ Of this place, although mentioned by Thucydides, b. iii. ch. 89, veiy
little is known, in consequence no doubt of its having almost entirely
disappeared by an earthquake, which took place about 426 or 425
years b. c. * Ktypa-vuna.

* Near Anthedon was a place called the Leap of Glaucus, where he
threw himself into the sea. Pausanias, ix. 22. The ruins of Anthedon

iSmith.

B. IX. c. II. § 15, 16. BCEOTIA. 99

so that Nisa could not stand in this passage, unless by Nisa
Homer meant Isus, for there was a city Nisa, in Megaris,
from whence Isus was colonized, situated at the base of
Cithaeron, but it exists no longer.^ Some however write
Kpevffdv re ^aderjVy

" The sacred Creusa,"

meaning the present Creusa, the arsenal of the Thespieans,
situated on the Crisaean Gulf. Others write the passage
'^apdg T£ i^aOiag,

" The sacred Pharae,"

Pharge is one of the four villages, (or Tetracomiae,) near Ta-
nagra, namely, Heleon, Harma, Mycalessus, Pharae. Others
again write the passage thus, Nuadv re <^a0£i?v,

" The sacred Nysa."

Nysa is a village of Helicon.

Such then is the description of the sea-coast opposite
Euboea.

15. The places next in order, in the inland parts, are
hollow plains, surrounded everywhere on the east and west by
mountains ; on the south by the mountains of Attica, on the
north by those of Phocis : on the west, Cithaeron inclines, ob-
liquely, a little above the Crisaean Sea ; it begins contiguous
to the mountains of Megaris and Attica, and then makes a
bend towards the plains, and terminates near the Theban
territory.

16. Some of these plains become lakes, by rivers spreading
over or falling into them and then flowing off. Some are
dried up, and being very fertile, are cultivated in every pos-
sible way. But as the ground underneath is full of caverns
and fissures, it has frequently happened, that violent earth-
quakes have obstructed some passages, and formed others un-
der-ground, or on the surface, the water being carried off,
either by subterranean channels, or by the formation of lakes
and rivers on the surface. If the deep subterranean passages
are stopped up, the waters of the lakes increase, so as to inun-
date and cover cities and whole districts, which become un-
covered, if the same or other passages are again opened. The
same regions are thus traversed in boats or on foot, according

^ This passage is very corrupt.
H 2

100 STRABO. Casaub. 40S.

to circumstances ; and the same cities are, occasionally, on the
borders of, or at a distance from, a lake.

17. One of two things took place. The cities either re-
tained their sites, when the rise of the water was insufficient
to overflow the houses, or they were deserted and rebuilt in
some other place, when the inhabitants, being frequently ex-
posed to danger from their vicinity to the lake, released them-
selves from further apprehension, by changing to a more
distant or higher situation. It followed that the cities thus
rebuilt retained the same name. Formerly, they might have
had a name derived from some accidental local circumstance,
but now the site does not correspond with the derivation of
the name. For example, it is probable that Platasee was so
called, from TrXar?;, or the flat part of the oar, and Plataeans
from gaining their livelihood by rowing ; but at present,
since they live at a distance from the lake, the name can no
longer, with equal propriety, be derived from this local cir-
cumstance. Helos also, and Heleon, and Heilesium^ were so
called from their situation close to eXrj, (Hele,) or marshes ;
but at present the case is different with all these places ; either
they have been rebuilt, or the lake has been greatly reduced
in height by a subsequent efflux of its waters ; for this is pos-
sible.

18. This is exemplified particularly in the Cephissus,^
which fills the lake Copais.^ When the increase of the water
of that lake was so great, that Copoe was in danger of being
swallowed up, (the city is mentioned by the poet, and from it
the lake had its name,)'^ a fissure in the ground, which took
place not far from the lake, and near Copaj, opened a subter-
raneous channel, of about 30 stadia in length, and received the
river, which reappeared on the surface, near Upper Larymna
in Locris ; for, as has been mentioned, there is another Larymna,
in Boeotia, on the sea, surnamed the Upper by the Romans.
The place where the river rises again is called Anchoe, as
also the lake near it. It is from this point that the Cephissus
begins its course^ to the sea. When the overflowing of the
water ceased, there was also a cessation of danger to the in-
habitants on the banks, but not before some cities had been

' The sites of these places are unknown.

2 Mauro-potamos. ^ Lake of Livadhia. * Kmtt}], an oar.

' That is, by natural or artificial subterraneous channels.

B. IX. c. II. § 19. BCEOTIA. 101

already swallowed up. When the outlets were again ob-
structed, Crates the Miner, a man of Chalcis, began to clear
away the obstructions, but desisted in consequence of the Boeo-
tians being in a state of insurrection ; although, as he himself
says, in the letter to Alexander, many places had been already
drained ; among these, some writers supposed was the site of
the ancient Orchomenus ; others, that of Eleusis, and of
Athens on the Triton. These cities are said to have been
founded by Cecrops, when he ruled over Boeotia, then called
Ogygia, but that they were afterwards destroyed by inunda-
tions. It is said, that there was a fissure in the earth near
Orchomenus, that admitted the river Melas,^ which flows
through the territory of Haliartus, and forms there a marsh,
where the reed grows of which the musical pipe is made.^
But this river has entirely disappeared, being carried off by
the subterraneous channels of the chasm, or absorbed by the
lakes and marshes about Haliartus ; whence the poet calls
Haliartus grassy,

" And the grassy Haliartus."'
19. These rivers descend from the Phocian mountains, and
among them the Cephissus,'* having its source at Lilaea, a
Phocian city, as Homer describes it ;

*' And they who occupied Lilaea, at the sources of Cephissus."*

It flows through Elateia,^ the largest of the cities among the
Phocians, through the Parapotamii, and the Phanoteis, which
are also Phocian towns ; it then goes onwards to Chgeroneia
in Boeotia; afterwards, it traverses the districts of Orcho-
menus and Coroneia, and discharges its waters into the lake
Copais. The Permessus and the Olmeius''^ descend from Heli-
con, and uniting their streams, fall into the lake Copais
near Haliartus. The waters of other streams likewise dis-
charge themselves into it. It is a large lake with a cir-
cuit of 380 stadia ;^ the outlets are nowhere visible, if we

' Mauroneri. 2 pjiny, b. xvi. c. 36, ^ n ^ 503.

* There were several rivers of this name. See below, c. iii. § 16.

* II. ii. 523.

^ See below, ch. iii. § 15. Elatei^ is represented by the modem village
of Elefta.

' See ch. ii. § 26. ,

' It is impossible to make any exact statement respecting its extent,
since it varied so much at different times of the year and in different sea-

102 STRABO. Casaub. 407.

except the chasm which receives the Cephissus, and the
marshes.

20. Among the neighbouring lakes are Trephea ^ and Ce-
phissis. Homer mentions it ;

" Who dwelt in Hyla, intent upon amassing wealth, close to the lake Ce-
phissis ; " '

for he did not mean to specify the lake Copais, as some sup-
pose, but that called Hylicus,^ from the neighbouring village,
which is called Hylae : nor did he mean Hyda, as some write
the passage,

" He lived in Hyda,"

for there is a place of this name in Lydia,

" at the foot of the snowy Tmolus, in the fruitful country of Hyda ; " *

and another in Boeotia ; he therefore adds to

" behind the lake Cephissis,"
these words,

" near dwelt other Boeotians."

For the Copais is of great extent, and not situated in the
Theban district, but the other is small, and filled from the
former by subterraneous channels ; it is situated between
Thebes^ and Anthedon. Homer however makes use of the
word in the singular number, sometimes making the first
syllable long by poetical licence, as in the Catalogue, r}2' "YXrjv
Kal IleTEiopa,^ and sometimes shortening it, as in this instance ;
"Oe jo' er ^YXy vaieaKe ; and again, Tychius HiKworofKor o\
api(TT(fQ"Y\]] euL olda valiovJ Nor do some persons correctly
write in this passage, "'Y^rj eVt,

" In Hyda,"
for Ajax was not to send for his shield from Lydia.

21. ^The lakes themselves would indicate the order in

sons. On the northern and eastern sides its extent is limited by a range
of heights, but on- the opposite quarter there is no such natural boundary
to its size. Smith, v. Boeotia, which contains also a useful map from
Forschamer's Hellenica of the Basin of the Copais.

' There appears to be no modern lake in the position assigned to Tre-
phea by Kiepert. Kramer suggests the omission here of the word Tre-
phea.

2 II. V. 708. 3 Makaris. * II. xx. 385. * Thiva.

« II. ii. 500. ^ II. vii. 221.

* The text is in a very imperfect state. The section is translated as
proposed to be emended by Kramer.

B. IX. c. II. § 22-2 i. BCEOTIA. 103

which the places stand, and thence it would be easy to perceive
that the poet, when naming them, whether they were places of
importance or otherwise, has observed no order. Indeed it
would be difficult in the enumeration of so many places, obscure
for the most part, and situated in the interior, to preserve a
regular order. The sea-coast affords more convenient means
oT doing this ; the places there are better known, and the sea
affords greater facilities for marking their position. We shall
therefore endeavour to take our point of departure from the
sea-coast, and without further discussion, shall follow the poet
in his enumeration of places ; at the same time, taking from
other sources whatever may prove useful to us, but which
has been omitted by him. He begins from Hyria and Aulis,
of which we have already spoken.

22. Schoenus ^ is a district of the Theban territory on the
road to Anthedon, distant from Thebes about 50 stadia. A
river of the name of Schoenus flows through it.

23. Scolus^ is a village belonging to the district of Paraso-
pia situated at the foot of Cithaeron ; it is a rugged place, and
scarcely habitable, hence the proverbial saying,

" Neither go yourself, nor follow any one going to Scolus."

It is said that Pentheus was brought from thence, and torn in
pieces. There was among the cities near Olynthus another of
the name of Scolus. We have said that in the Heracleian
Trachinia there was a village of the name of Parasopii, beside
which runs a river Asopus, and that there is another river
Asopus in Sicyonia, and that the country through which it
flows is called Asopia. There are however other rivers of
the same name.

24. The name of Eteonus was changed to that of Scar-
phe, which belongs to Parasopia. [Parasopia belongs to the
Thebais,] for the Asopus and the Ismenus flow through the
plain in front of Thebes. There is the fountain Dirce, and
also Potniae, where is laid the fable of Glaucus of PotnisD,
who was torn in pieces near the city by Potnian mares. The
Cithaeron 3 terminates not far from Thebes. The Asopus
flows by it, and washes the foot of the mountain, and occa-
sions the Parasopii to be distributed among several settle-
ments, but all of these bodies of people are subject to the

' Morikios. * Kalyvi. » Mount Elatea.

^^^ STRABO. Casaub. 409.

Thebans. (Other writers say, that Scolus, Eteonus, and
Erythrae, are in the district of Platsese, for the Asopus flows
past Platsese, and discharges its waters into the sea near Tana-
gra.) In the Theban territory are Therapnse and Teumessus,
which Antimachus has extolled in a long poem, enumerat-
ing excellencies which it had not ;

" There is a small hill exposed to the winds," &c. :
but the lines are well known.

25. He calls the present place Thespiae ^ by the name of
Thespia, for there are many names, of which some are used
both in the singular and in the plural number, in the
masculine and in the feminine gender, and some in either one
or the other only. It is a city close to Helicon, lying more
to the south. The city itself and Helicon are situated on the
Crisaean Gulf. Thespias has an arsenal Creusa, or, as it is
also named, Creusia. In the Thespian territory, in the part
lying towards Helicon, is Ascra,^ the birth-place of Hesiod.
It is on the right of Helicon, situated upon a lofty and rocky
spot, at the distance of about 40 stadia from Thespia. Hesiod
has satirized it in verses addressed to his father, for formerly
emigrating (to this place) from Cume in ^tolia, as follows :

" He dwelt near Helicon in a wretched village, Ascra ; bad in winter, in
summer intolerable, and worthless at any season." '

Helicon is contiguous to Phocis on its northern, and partly
on its western side, as far as the last harbour of Phocis, which
is called from its characteristic situation, Mychus, or the
Recess.

' There is some doubt respecting the modern name of Thespiae ; the
Austrian map places the ruins near Erimokastro.

2 Placing Ascra at Pyrgaki, there is little doubt that Aganippe, whence
the Muses were called Aganippides, is the fountain which issues from the
left bank of the torrent flowing midway between Paleopanaghea and
Pyrgaki. Around this fountain Leake observed numerous square blocks,
and in the neighbouring fields stones and remains of habitations. The
position of the Grove of the Muses is fixed at St. Nicholas, by an inscrip-
tion which Leake discovered there relating to the Museia, or the games
of the Muses, which were celebrated there under the presidency of the
Thespians. Paus. b. ix. c. 31. In the time of Pausanias the Grove of
the Muses contained a larger number of statues than any other place in
Bceotia, and this writer has given an account of many of them. The
statues of the Muses were removed by Constantino from this place to his
new capital, where they were destroyed by fire, in a. d. 404. Smith.

3 Works and Days, 639.

B. IX. c. II. § 25. BCEOTIA. 105

Just above this part of the Crisaean Gulf, Helicon, As-
cra, Thespige, and its arsenal Creusa, are situated. This is
considered as the part of the Crissean and of the Corinthian
Gulf which recedes most inland. The coast extends 90 stadia
from the recess of the harbour to Creusa, and thence 120 as
far as the promontory called Holmiae. In the most retired
part of the Crisaean Gulf, Pagae and CEnoa, which I have
already mentioned, are situated.

Helicon, not far distant from Parnassus, rivals it in height *
and circumference. Both mountains are covered with snow,
and are rocky. They do not occupy a circuit of ground of great
extent. There are, the fane of the Muses, the Horse-fountain
Hippocrene,^ and the grottoes of the nymphs, the Leibethrides.
Hence it might be conjectured, that Helicon w^as consecrated
to the Muses, by Thracians, who dedicated also Pieris, the
Leibethrum, and Pimpleia to the same goddesses. The
Thracians were called Pieres, and since their expulsion, the
Macedonians possess these places.

It has been remarked, that the Thracians, (having expelled
the Boeotians by force,) and the Pelasgi, and other barbarous
people, settled in this part of Boeotia.

Thespiae was formerly celebrated for a statue of Cupid by
Praxiteles. Glycera the courtesan, a native of Thespiae, re-
ceived it as a present from the artist, and dedicated it as a
public offering to her fellow-citizens.

Persons formerly used to repair thither to see the Cupid,
w^here there was nothing else worth seeing. This city, and
Tanagra, alone of the Boeotian cities exist at present, while of
others there remain nothing but ruins and names.

' This is a mistake, since the loftiest summit of Helicon is barely 5000
feet high, whilst that of Parnassus is upwards of 8000 feet. Smith. He-
licon is a range of mountains with several summits, of which the loftiest
is a round mountain now called Paleovuni. Smith. The Austrian map
gives the modern name Zagora to Helicon.

2 Twenty stadia from the Grove of the Muses was the fountain Hip-
pocrene, which was said to have been produced by the horse Pegasus
striking the ground with his foot. Pans. b. ix. ch. 31. Hippocrene was
probably at Makariotissa, which is noted for a fine spring of water. Smith.
The Austrian map places it at Kukuva. Leibethrum, or Leibethreium,
is described by Pausanias as . distant 40 stadia from Coroneia, and is
therefore probably the mount Zagora. Smith.

^^^ STRABO. Casaub. 410.

26. After ThespiaB the poet enumerates Graia and Myca-
lessus, of which we have before spoken.

He proceeds as before,

" They who lived near Harma, Eilesium, and Erythrs,
And they who occupied Eleon, Hyle, and Peteon." *

Peteon is a village of the Thebais near the road to Anthedon.
Ocalea is midway between Haliartus,^ and AlalcomenEe,^ it is
distant from each 30 stadia. A small river of the same name
flows by it. Medeon, belonging to Phocis, is on the Crissean
Gulf, distant from Boeotia 160 stadia. The Medeon of Eoeo-
tia has its name from that in Phocis. It is near Onchestus,
under the mountain Phoeniciura/ whence it has the appella-
tion of Phoenicis. This mountain is likewise assigned to the
Theban district, but by others to the territories of Haliartus,
as also Medeon and Ocalea.

27. Homer afterwards names,

" Copse, and Eutresis, and Thisbe, abounding with doves.'"

» II. ii. 499.

' The remains of Haliartus are situated upon a hill about a mile from
the village of Mazi, on the road from Thebes to Lebadeia, and at the dis-
tance of about 15 miles from either place. Although the walls of the
town are scarcely anywhere traceable, its extent is marked on the east
and west by two small rivers, of which that to the west issues from the
foot of the hill of Mazi, the eastern, called the Kafalari, has its origin in
Mount Helicon. The stream on the western side of the city is the one
called Hoplites by Plutarch, where Lysander fell in battle with the The-
bans, B. c. 395, and is apparently the same as the Lophis of Pausanias.
The stream on the eastern side, the Kafalari, is formed by the union of
two rivulets, which appear to be the Permessus and Olmeius, which are
described by Strabo as flowing from Helicon, and after their union enter-
ing the Lake Copais, near Haliartus. Smith.

' It was celebrated for the worship of Athena, who is hence called
Alalcomeneis in Homer. The temple of the goddess stood at a little dis-
tance from the town, on the Triton, a small stream flowing into the Lake
Copais. The modern village Sulinari is the site of Alalcomense. Smith.

* Phcenicium, or Sphingium, now called Faga, the mountain between
the Lakes Copais and Hylica, connecting Mount Ptoum with the range of
Helicon. Forchamer supposes that Phoenicium and Sphingium are the
names of two diff"erent mountains, separated from one another by the small
plain of the stream Daulos ; but the name of Phcenicium rests only on the
authority of Strabo, and it is probably a corruption of Phicium. $i? is
the ^olic form of '2<p'Ly%, (Hes. Theog. 326,) and therefore there can be
no doubt that Phicium and Sphingium are two different forms of the same
name. Sjnith. ^ II. ii. 502.

B. IX. c. II. § 28, 29. . BCEOTIA. 107

We have spoken of Copse. It lies towards the north on the
lake Copais. The other cities around are, Acraephiae, Phoe-
nicis, Onchestus, Haliartus, Ocalea, Alalcomense, Tilphusium,
Coroneia. Formerly, the lake had no one general name, but
derived its appellation from every settlement on its banks, as
Copais from Cop£e,VHaliartis from Haliartus, and other names
from other places, but latterly the whole has been called
Copais, for the lake is remarkable for forming at Copae the
deepest hollow. Pindar calls it Cephissis, and places near it,
not far from Haliartus and Alalcomenae, the fountain Til-
phossa, which flows at the foot of Mount Tilphossius. At the
fountain is the monument of Teiresias, and in the same place
the temple of the Tilphossian Apollo.

28. After Copae, the poet mentions Eutresis, a small village
of the Thespians.^ Here Zethus and Amphion lived before
they became kings of Thebes.

Thisbe is now called Thisbas. The place is situated a little
above the sea-coast on the confines of the Thespienses, and
the territory of Coroneia ; on the south it lies at the foot of
Cithaeron. It has an arsenal in a rocky situation abounding
with doves, whence the poet terms it

" Thisbe, with its flights of doves.*'
Thence to Sicyon is a voyage of 160 stadia.

29. He next recites the names of Coroneia, Haliartus, Pla-
taeae, and Glissas.

Coroneia^ is situated upon an eminence, near Helicon. The
Boeotians took possession of it on their return from the Thes-
salian Arne, after the Trojan war, when they also occupied
Orchomenus. Having become masters of Coroneia, they built
in the plain before the city the temple of the Itonian Minerva,
of the same name as that in Thessaly, and called the river

* It was still in existence in the time of Pausanias ; the modern village
Topolia occupies the site.

2 Leake conjectures that there is an error in the text, and that for
Oeairiujv we ought to read Qiafiuiv, since there is only one spot in the ten
miles betAveen Plataea and Thespiae where any town is likely to have
stood, and that was occupied by Leuctra. See Smith.

^ It was here that the Athenians under Tolmides were defeated by the
Boeotians in b. c. 447 ; in consequence of which defeat the Athenians lost
the sovereignly which they had for some years exercised over Bceotia.
The plain of Coroneia was also the scene of the victory gained by Agesi-
laus over the Thebans and their allies in b. c. 394.

108 • STRABO. Casaub. 411.

flowing by it, Cuarius, the name of the Thessalian river.
Alcagus, however, calls it Coralius in these words,

" Minerva, warrior queen, who o'er Coroneia keepest watch before thy
temple, on the banks of Coralius."

The festival Pamboeotia was here celebrated. Hades is asso-
ciated with Minerva, in the dedication of the temple, for some
mystical reason. The inhabitants of the Boeotian Coroneia
are called Coronii, those of the Messenian Coroneia, Coronenses.

30. Haliartus * is no longer in existence, it was razed in the
war against Perseus. The territory is occupied by the Athe-
nians, to whom it was given by the Romans. It was situated
in a narrow spot between an overhanging mountain and the
lake Copais, near the Permessus, the Olmeius, and the marsh
that produces the flute-reed.

31. Plataeae, which the poet uses in the singular number,
lies at the foot of Cithaeron, between this mountain and Thebes,
on the road to Athens and Megara ; it is on the borders of
Attica and Bosotia, for Eleutherae is near, which some say be-
longs to Attica, others to Boeotia. We have said that the
Asopus flows beside Plataeae. There the army of the- Greeks
entirely destroyed Mardonius and three hundred thousand
Persians. They dedicated there a temple to Jupiter Eleu-
therius, and instituted gymnastic games, called Eleutheria, in
which the victor was crowned. The tombs erected at the
public expense, in honour of those who died in the battle, are
to be seen there. In the Sicyonian district is a demus called
Plataeae, where the poet Mnasalces was born :

" the monument of Mnasalces of Plataeae."
Glissas,^ Homer says, is a village on Mount Hypatus, which
is near Teumessus and Cadmeia, in the Theban territory.
******* beneath is what is called the Aonian plain,
which extends from Mount Hypatus [to Cadmeia ?].^

* Pausanias, b. ix. 33, mentions the Heroum of Lysander in Hali-
artus, and some ruined temples, which had been burnt by the Persians,
and had been purposely left in that state. Smith.

^ Leake identifies Glisas with the ruins on the bank of the torrent
Platanaki, above which rises the mountain Siamata, the ancient Hypatus.
' The following is the original of this corrupt passage. Kramer suggests
that the words y. 5. have been introduced from the margin into the text.
ytoj\o<l>a KoXeiTai dpi\_* * * (^ i/7ro7r]t7rrat to
'Aoviov Kokoufjievov Tttdiov o diaruvH * *
* * * * CLTTO rov 'YTrdrou bpovQ.

B. IX. c. II. § 32—34. B(EOTIA. 109

32. By these words of the poet,

" those who occupied under Thebes," *
some understand a small town, called Under-Thebes, others
Potniae, for Thebes was abandoned after the expedition of the
Epigoni, and took no part in the Trojan war. Others say
that they did take part in it, but that they Hved at that time
under Cadmeia, in the plain country, after the incursion of the
Epigoni, being unable to rebuild the Cadmeia. As Thebes
was called Cadmeia, the poet says that the Thebans of that
time lived "under Thebes" instead of "under Cadmeia."

33. The Amphictyonic council usually assembled at On-
chestus, in the territory of Haliartus, near the lake Copais,
and the Teneric plain. It is situated on a height, devoid of
trees, where is a temple of Neptune also without trees. For
the poets, for the sake of ornament, called all sacred places
groves, although they were without trees. Such is the lan-
guage of Pindar, when speaking of Apollo :

"He traversed in his onward way the earth and sea ; he stood upon the
heights of the lofty mountains ; he shook the caves in their deep recesses,
and overthrew the foundations of the sacred groves" or temples.

As Alcasus is mistaken in the altering the name of the river
Cuarius, so he makes a great error in placing Onchestus at
the extremities of Helicon, whereas it is situated very far from
this mountain.

34. The Teneric plain has its name from Tenerus. Ac-
cording to mythology, he was the son of Apollo and Melia,
and declared the answers of the oracle at the mountain Ptoum,^
which, the same poet says, had three peaks :

" At one time he occupied the caves of tlie three-headed Ptoum ; "

and he calls Tenerus

" the prophet, dwelling in the temple, and having the same name as the
soil on which it stands."

The Ptoum is situated above the Teneric plain, and the lake
Copa'is, near Acraephium.

Pausanias, b. ix. ch. 19, makes mention of a tumulus covered with
trees, near the ruins of Glisas or Glissas, which was the burial-place of
^gialus and his companions, and also of other tumuli. These were pro-
bably the yfwXo^a dpia, woody hillocks. The obscurity, however, still
remains.

* II. ii. 505.

' The three summits of Ptoum bear the names of Palea, Stranitza, and
Skroponeri.

110 STRABO. Casaub. 413.

Both the oracle and the mountain belonged to the Thebans.

Acraephium ^ itself is situated upon a height. This, it is
said, is the place called Arne bj the poet, having the same
name as the Thessalian Arne.

35. Some say that Arne ;ind Mideia were swallowed up by
the lake. Zenodotus, however, when he writes the verse thus,

" they who occupied Ascra abounding with vines," ^

does not seem to have read Hesiod's description of his native
country, and what has been said by Eudoxus, who relates
things much more to the disparagement of Ascra. For how
could any one believe that such a place could have been de-
scribed by the poet as

" abounding with vines ? "

Neither are those persons in the right, who substitute in this
passage Tarne for Arne, for there is not a place of the name
of Tarne to be found in Boeotia, although there is in Lydia.
Homer mentions it,

" Idomeneus then slew Phaestus, the son of Borus, the artificer, who came
from the fruitful soil of Tarne." '

Besides Alalcomenae and Tilphossium, which are near the
lake, Choeroneia, Lebadia, and Leuctra, are worthy of notice.

36. The poet mentions Alalcomenae,'* but not in the Cata-
logue ;

"the Argive Juno and Minerva of Alalcomenae."*

It has an ancient temple of Minerva, which is held in great
veneration. It is said that this was the place of her birth, as
Argos was that of Juno, and that Homer gave to both these
goddesses designations derived from their native places. Per-
haps for this reason he has not mentioned, in the Catalogue,
the inhabitants ; for having a sacred character, they were ex-
empted from military service. Indeed the city has never suf-
fered devastation by an enemy, although it is inconsiderable
in size, and its position is weak, for it is situated in a plain.

* The ruins are situated at a short distance south of Kardhitza. The
site of Cierium, the modern village Mataranga, was first discovered by
Leake, who identifies it with Arne, and supposes, with much probability,
that the name Arne may have been disused by the Thessalian conquerors,
because it was of Boeotian origin, and that the new appellation may have
been taken from the neighbouring river Curalius or Cuarius.

2 11. ii. 507. 3 11, V. 43. ♦ Sulinari. « II. iv. 8.

B IX. c. 11. § 37—40. BCEOTIA. 1 1 1

All in reverence to the goddess abstained from every act of
violence ; wherefore the Thebans, at the time of the expedi-
tion of the Epigoni, abandoning their own city, are said to
have taken refuge here, and on the strong mountain above it,
the Tilphossium.^ Below Tilphossium is the fountain Til-
phossa, and the monument of Teiresias, who died there on
the retreat.

37. Chseroneia^ is near Orchomenus,^ where Philip, the son
of Amyntas, after having overcome, in a great battle,^ the
Athenians, Boeotians, and Corinthians, became the master of
Greece. There are seen the sepulchres erected at the public
charge of the persons who fell in that battle.

38. At Lebadeia^ is the oracle of Jupiter Trophonius,
having a descent through an opening, which leads under-
ground. The person himself, who consults the oracle, de-
scends into it. It is situated between Helicon and Chaeroneia,
near Coroneia.

39. Leuctra^ is the place where Epaminondas overcame the
Lacedaemonians in a great battle, and first weakened their
power ; for after that time they were never able to regain the
supremacy over the Greeks, which they before possessed,
and particularly after they were defeated in a second battle at
Mantinea. Even after these reverses they preserved their
independence until the establishment of the Roman dominion,
and were always respected by that people on account of the
excellency of their form of government. The field of battle
is shown on the road which leads from Platseae to Thespiae.

40. The poet next mentions the Orchomenians in the Cata-
logue, and distinguishes them from the Boeotian nation. He
gives to Orchomenus the epithet Minyeian from the nation of
the Minyae. They say that a colony of the Minyeians went
hence to lolcus,"^ and from this circumstance the Argonauts
were called Minyae. It appears that, anciently, it was a rich

* Petra. ' Kapurna. ^ Scripu.

* On the 7th of August, b. c. 338. Of the details of this battle we have
no account. The site of the monument is marked by a tumulus about a
mile or a little more from the Khan of Kapurna, on the right side of the
road towards Orchomenus. A few years ago (according to Mure) the
mound of earth was excavated and a colossal lion discovered, deeply im-
bedded in its interior. See Smith.

* Livadhia. « LePKa.
' See below, ch.. v. § 15.

112 STRABO. Casaub. 414.

and very powerful city. Homer bears witness to its wealth,
for in his enumeration of places of great opulence, he says,

" Not all that is brought to Orchomenus, or to Egyptian Thebes." *
Of its power there is this proof, that the Thebans always paid
tribute to the Orchomenians, and to Erginus their king, who it
is said was put to death by Hercules. Eteocles, one of the
kings that reigned at Orchomenus, first displayed both wealth
and power. He built a temple dedicated to the Graces, who
were thus honoured by him, either because he had been for-
tunate in receiving or conferring favours, or perhaps for both
these reasons.

[For one who was inclined thus to honour these god-
desses, must have been naturally disposed to be a benefactor,
and he must have possessed the power. But for this purpose
wealth is required. For he who has not much cannot give
much, nor can he who does not receive much possess much ;
but when giving and receiving unite, then there is a just ex-
change. For a vessel which is simultaneously emptied and
filled is always full ; but he who gives and does not receive
cannot succeed in either giving or receiving, for the giver
must desist from giving from failure of means. Givers also
will desist from giving to him who receives only, and confers
no benefits, so that he must fail in receiving. The same may
be said of power. For independently of the common saying,

" That money is the thing most highly valued,
And has the greatest influence in human affairs,"'

we may examine the subject more in detail. We say, for ex-
ample, that kings have the greatest power, (/uaXtora IvvacQai,)
whence the name, dynasty. Their power is exerted by lead-
ing the multitude whither they like, by persuasion or by force.
Their power of persuasion chiefly rests in doing acts of kind-
ness ; for persuasion by words is not princely, but belongs to
the orator. By princely persuasion, I mean, when kings di-
rect and lead men whither .they please by acts of kindness.
They persuade by acts of kindness, but compel by means of
arms. Both power and possessions may be purchased by
money. For he has the largest body of forces, who is able to
maintain the largest ; and he who has the largest possessions,
can confer the greatest benefits.^]

* II. Ix. 381. * Euripides, Phoen. 422. ^ probably an interpolation.

B. IX. c. II. Hl> 42. PHOCIS. 113

The spot which the present lake Copais occupies, was form-
erly, it is said, dry ground, and was cultivated in various
ways by the Orchomenians, who lived near it ; and this is al-
leged as a proof of wealth.

41. Some persons use the word Aspledon^ without the first
syllable, Spledon. The name both of the city and of the ter-
ritory was changed to Eudeielos,^ which expressed perhaps
some peculiar advantage the inhabitants derived from their
western position, and especially the mild winters. The ex-
treme parts of the day are the coldest. Of these the evening
is colder than the morning, for as night approaches the cold is
more intense, and as night retires the cold abates. The
severity of the cold is mitigated by the heat of the sun, and
the part which during the coldest season has received most of
the sun's heat, is mildest in winter.

It is distant from Orchomenus^ 20 stadia. The river
Melas is between them.

42. Panopeus, a Phocian city, and Hyampolis'* are situated
above Orchomenus. Opus, the metropolis of the Locri Epic-
nemidii, borders upon these places. It is said, that Orcho-
menus was formerly situated on a plain, but, as the waters
overflowed, the settlers removed to the mountain Acontium,
which extends 60 stadia in length, as far as Parapotamii in
Phocis. It is said, that those people, who are called Achaei in
Pontus, are colonists from the Orchomenians, who, after the
capture of Troy, wandered thither under the conduct of lal-
menus. There was also an Orchomenus near Carystus.

The writers on the Catalogue of Ships [in Homer], have
furnished us with these materials, and they have been fol-
lowed, wherever they introduced anything adapted to the
design of this work.

CHAPTER III.

1. Next to Boeotia and Orchomenus is Phocis, lying along
the side of Boeotia to the north, and, anciently, nearly from sea

* Leake places it at Tzamali, but Forchammer with more probability
at Avro-Kastro.

^ EvSiieXog. ' Scripu. * Bof}:cl;ina,

VOL. II. I

114 STRABO. Casaub. 416.

to sea. For at that time Daphnus belonged to Phocis, dividing
Locris into two parts, and situated midway between the Opun-
tian Gulf and the sea-coast of the Epicnemidii. At present,
however, the district belongs to the Locri ; but the town is in
ruins, so that Phocis no longer extends to the sea opposite Eu-
boea ; but it is close to the Crissean Gulf. For Crisa itself be-
longs to Phocis, and is situated immediately upon the sea.
Cirrha, Anticyra,^ and the places above them, in the interior
near Parnassus in continuous succession, namely, Delphi,^
Cirphis, and Daulis,^ belong to Phocis, so also Parnassus it-
self, which is the boundary of the western side.

In the same manner as Phocis lies along the side of Boeotia,
so are both the divisions of Locris situated with respect to
Phocis, for Locris is composed of two parts, being divided by
Parnassus. The western part lies along the side of Parnassus,
occupies a portion of it, and extends to the Crisaean Gulf ; the
eastern part terminates at the sea near Euboea. The inhabit-
ants of the former are called Locri Hesperii, or Locri Ozolse, and
have engraven on their public seal the star Hesperus. The rest
are again divided into two bodies : one, the Opuntii, who have
their name from the chief city, and border upon the Phocae-
ans and Boeotians ; the other, the Epicnemidii, who have their
name from the mountain Cnemis ;'* and adjoin the QEtcei,
and the Malienses. In the midst of the Hesperii, and the
other Locri, is Parnassus, lying lengthwise towards the north-
ern part, and extending from the neighbourhood of Delphi to
the junction of the (Etaean, and the JEtolian mountains, and
to the Dorians, who are situated between them. For as both
divisions of Locris extend along the side of Phocis, so also the
region of (Eta with JEtolia, and some of the places situated in
the Doric Tetrapolis, extend along the sides of the two Locri,
Parnassus and the Dorians. Immediately above these are
situated the Thessalians, the northern ^tolians, the Acarna-
nians, and some of the Epirotic and Macedonian nations, as I
observed before, the above-mentioned tracts of country may
be considered as a kind of parallel bands stretching from the
v/est to the east.

The whole of Parnassus is esteemed sacred, it contains
caves, and other places, which are regarded with honour and

' Aspra-Spitia. ^ Kastri. ^ Daulia.

* It is a continuation of the ridge of CEta.

B. IX. c. III. $ 2. PHOCIS. 115

reverence. Of these the most celebrated and the most beau-
tiful is Corycium, a cave of the nymphs, having the same
name as that in Cilicia. Of the sides of Parnassus, the west-
ern is occupied by the Locri Ozolag, and by some of the Dori-
ans, and by the ^toli, situated near Corax, an ^tolian
mountain. The eastern side is occupied by Phocians and by
the greater part of the Dorians, who hold the Tetrapolis, situ-
ated as it were round the side of Parnassus, but spreading out
in the largest extent towards the east. The sides of the
above-mentioned tracts and each of the bands are parallel, one
side being northern, and the other southern. The western
sides, however, are not parallel to the eastern, for the sea-coast
from the Crissean Gulf to Actium ^ is not parallel to the coast
opposite Euboea, and extending to Thessalonica. It is on
these shores the above-mentioned nations terminate. For the
figure of these countries is to be understood from the notion of
lines drawn parallel to the base of a triangle, where the separ-
ate parts lie parallel to one another, and have their sides in
latitude parallel, but not their sides in longitude. This is a
rough sketch of the country which remains to be examined.
We shall examine each separate part in order, beginning with
Phocis.

2. The two most celebrated cities of this country are Del-
phi and Elateia. Delphi is renowned for the temple of the
Pythian Apollo, and the antiquity of its oracle ; since Aga-
memnon is said by the poet to have consulted it ; for the min-
strel is introduced singing of the

" fierce contest of Ulysses, and Achilles, the son of Peleus, how once they
contended together, and Agamemnon king of men was pleased, for so
Phoebus Apollo had foretold by the oracle in the illustrious Pytho." ^

Delphi then was celebrated on this account. Elateia was
famous as being the largest of the cities in that quarter, and
for its very convenient position upon the straits ; for he, who
is the master of this city, commands the entrances into Phocis
and Boeotia. First, there are the QEtaean mountains, next the
mountains of the Locri, and the Phocians ; they are not every
where passable for invading armies, coming from Thessaly,
but having narrow passes distinct from each other, which the
adjacent cities guard. Those, who take the cities, are masters

» La Punta. ^ Qd. -viii. 75.

116 STRABO. Casaub. 418.

of the passes also. But since from its celebrity the temple at
Delphi possesses a pre-eminence, this, together with the posi-
tion of the places, (for thej are the most westerly parts of
Phocis,) suggest a natural commencement of our description,
and we shall begin from thence.

3. We have remarked, that Parnassus itself is situated on
the western boundaries of Phocis. The western side of this
mountain is occupied by the Locri Ozolae ; on the southern is
Delphi, a rocky spot, resembling in shape a theatre ; on its
summit is the oracle, and also the city, which comprehends a
circle of 16 stadia. Above it lies Lycoreia; here the Del-
phians were formerly settled above the temple. At present
they live close to it around the Castalian fountain. In front
of the city, on the southern part, is Cirphis, a precipitous hill,
leaving in the intermediate space a wooded ravine, through
which the river Pleistus flows. Below Cirphis near the sea
is Cirrha, an ancient city, from which there is an ascent to
Delphi of about 80 stadia. It is situated opposite to Sicyon.
Adjoining to Cirrha is the fertile Crisaean plain. Again,
next in order follows another city Crisa, from which the
Crisaean Gulf has its name ; then Anticyra,^ of the same name
as the city, on the Maliac Gulf, and near CEta. The best
hellebore is said to grow in the Maliac Anticyra,^ but l>ere
it is prepared in a better manner ; on this account many
persons resort hither for the purpose of experiencing its
purgative qualities, and of being cured of their maladies. In
the Phocian territory there is found a medicinal plant, resem-
bling Sesamum, (Sesamoides,) with which the (Etasan helle-
bore is prepared.

4. Anticyra still remains, but Cirrha and Crisa ^ are in
ruins ; Cirrha was destroyed by the Crisaeans ; and Crisa,
afterwards, by Eurylochus the Thessalians, in the Crisasan
war ; for the Crisaei enriched themselves by duties levied on
merchandise brought from Sicily and Italy, and laid grievous
imposts on those who resorted to the temple, contrary to the
decrees of the Amphictyons. The same was the case with the
Amphissenses, who belong to the Locri Ozolae. This people
made an irruption into the country, and took possession of
Crisa, and restored it. The plain, which had been consecrated

1 Aspra Spitia. ^ At the mouth of the Spercheius.

' The ruins are near Chryso.

B. IX. c. III. § 5, 6. PHOCIS. 117

by the Ampliictyons, was diligently cultivated, but strangers
were more harshly treated than by the Crisasans before them.
The Amphictyons punished them and restored the territory to
the god. The temple at Delphi is now much neglected, although
formerly it was held in the greatest veneration. Proofs of the
respect which was paid to it are, the treasuries constructed at
the expense of communities and princes, where was deposited
the wealth dedicated to sacred uses, the works of the most
eminent artists, the Pythian games, and a multitude of cele-
brated oracles.

5. The place where the oracle is delivered, is said to be a
deep hollow cavern, the entrance to which is not very wide.
From it rises up an exhalation which inspires a divine frenzy :
over the mouth is placed a lofty tripod on which the Pythian
priestess ascends to receive the exhalation, after which she
gives the prophetic response in verse or prose. The prose is
adapted to measure by poets who are in the service of the
temple. Phemonoe is said to have been the first Pythian pro-
phetess, and both the prophetess and the city obtained their
appellation from the word Pythesthai, to inquire, {irvQiaQai).
The first syllable was lengthened, as in the words aflavaroc,

^ [The establishment of cities, and the honour paid to com-
mon temples, are due to the same feelings and causes. Men were
collected together into cities and nations, from a natural dis-
position to society, and for the purpose of mutual assistance.
Hence common temples were resorted to, festivals celebrated,
and meetings held of the general body of the people. For
friendship commences from and is promoted by attending the
same feasts, uniting in the same worship, and dwelling under
the same roof. The advantages derived from these meetings
were naturally estimated from the number of persons who at-
tended them, as also from the number of places from whence
they came.]

6. Although the highest honour was paid to this temple on
account of the oracle, (for it was the most exempt of any from
deception,) yet its reputation was owing in part to its situation
in the centre of all Greece, both within and without the isth-
mus. It was also supposed to be the centre of the habitable

^ Apparently an interpolation. Groskurd,

118 STRABO. Casaub. 420.

earth, and was called the Navel of the earth. A fable, re-
ferred to by Pindar, was invented, according to which two
eagles, (or, as others say, two crows,) set free by Jupiter, one
from the east, the other from the west, alighted together at
Delphi. In the temple is seen a sort of navel wrapped in
bands, and surmounted by figures representing the birds of
the fable.

7. As the situation of Delphi is convenient, persons easily
assembled there, particularly those from the neighbourhood, of
whom the Amphictyonic body is composed. It is the business
of this body to deliberate on public affairs, and to it is more
particularly intrusted the guardianship of the temple for the
common good ; for large sums of money were deposited there,
and votive offerings, which required great vigilance and
religious care. The early history of this body is unknown,
but among the names which are recorded, Acrisius appears to"
have been the first who regulated its constitution, to have
determined what cities were to have votes in the council, and
to have assigned the number of votes and mode of voting. To
some cities he gave a single vote each, or a vote to two cities,
or to several cities conjointly. He also defined the class of
questions which might arise between the different cities,
which were to be submitted to the decision of the Amphicty-
onic tribunal ; and subsequently many other regulations were
made, but this body, like that of the Achaeans, was finally
dissolved.

At first twelve cities are said to have assembled, each of
which sent a Pylagoras. The convention was held twice a
year, in spring and autumn. But latterly a greater number
of cities assembled. They called both the vernal and the
autumnal convention Pylaean, because it was held at Pylae,
which has the name also of Thermopylae. The Pylagorse
sacrificed to Ceres.

In the beginning, the persons in the neighbourhood only as-
sembled, or consulted the oracle, but afterwards people re-
paired thither from a distance for this purpose, sent gifts, and
constructed treasuries, as Croesus, and his father Alyattes,
some of the Italians also, and the Siceli (Sicilians).

8. But the wealth, being an object of cupidity, was guarded
with difficulty, although dedicated to sacred uses. At pre-
^nt, however, whatever it might have been, the temple at

B. IX. c. III. § 9. PHOCIS. 119

Delphi is exceedingly poor. Some of the offerings have
been taken away for the sake of the money, but the greater
part remain there. It is true that the temple was once very
opulent, as Homer testifies ;

" Nor all the wealth, which the marble threshold of Phoebus Apollo, the
Archer, (Aphetor,) • contains in the rocky Pytho." *

The treasuries indicate its riches, and the plunder committed
by the Phocians, which gave rise to the Phocic or Sacred
war, as it was called. It is however supposed that a spolia-
tion of the temple must have taken place at some more re-
mote period, when the wealth mentioned by Homer disap-
peared ; for no vestige of it whatever was preserved to later
times, when Onomarchus and Phayllus pillaged the temple, as
the property [then] removed was of a more recent date than
that referred to by the poet. For there were once deposited
in the treasuries, offerings from spoils, bearing inscriptions
with the names of the donors, as of Gyges, of Croesus, of the
SybaritaB, of the Spinetse on the Adriatic, and of others also.
It would be unbecoming to suppose ^ that modern and ancient
treasures were confounded together : other places pillaged by
these people confirm this view.

Some persons, however, understanding the word Aphetor
to signify treasure, and the threshold of the aphetor the reposi-
tory of the treasure under-ground, say, that this wealth was
buried beneath the temple, and that Onomarchus and his
companions attempted to dig it up by night ; violent shocks
of an earthquake caused them to fly out of the temple, and
desist from their excavation ; thus others were impressed
with a dread of making similar attempts.

9. Of the shrines, the winged shrine'' is to be placed among
fabulous stories. The second is said to have been the work-
manship of Trophonius and Agamedes, but the present
shrine^ was buiit by the Amphictyons. A tomb of Neoptole-
mus is shown in the sacred enclosure. It was built accordingr

* a(pT}T(i)p. 2 II. ix. 404. ' A conjecture by Kramer.

* Pausanias, b. x. c. 5, speaks of a temple of Apollo at Delphi, which
was supposed to have been constructed by bees, with their combs and
wings.

* Of which Spintharus the Corinthian was the architect. Pausanias, b.
X. c. 5.

120 STRABO. Casaub. 421.

to the injunction of an oracle. Neoptolemus was killed by
Machs&reus, a Delphian, when, as the table goes, he was seek-
ing redress from the god for the murder of his father, but,
probably, he was preparing to pillage the temple- Branchus,
who presided over the temple at Didyma, is said to have been
a descendant of Machasreus.

10. There was anciently a contest held at Delphi, of players
on the cithara, who executed a paean in honour of the god. It
was instituted by Delphians. But after the Crisaean war the
Amphictyons, in the time of Eurylochus, established contests
for horses, and gymnastic sports, in which the victor was
crowned. These were called Pythian games. The players^
on the cithara were accompanied by players on the flute, and
by citharists,^ who performed without singing. They per^
formed a strain (Melos),^ called the Pythian mood (Nomos).*
It consisted of five parts ; the anacrusis, the ampeira, catace-
leusmus, iambics and dactyls, and pipes.^ Timosthenes, the com-
mander of the fleet of the Second Ptolemy, and who was the
author of a work in ten books on Harbours, composed a melos.
His object was to celebrate in this melos the contest of Apollo
with the serpent Python. The anacrusis was intended to ex-
press the prelude ; the ampeira, the first onset of the contest ;
the cataceleusmus, the contest itself; the iambics and dactyls
.denoted the triumphal strain on obtaining the victory, together
with musical measures, of which the dactyl is peculiarly ap*
propriated to praise, and the use of the iambic to insult and
reproach; the syringes or pipes described the death, the
players imitating the hissings of the expiring monster.^

11. Ephorus, whom we generally follow, on account of his
exactness in these matters, (as Polybius, a writer of repute,
testifies,) seems to proceed contrary to his proposed plan, and
to the promise which he made at the beginning of his work.
For after having censured those writers who are fond of in-
termixing fable with history, and after having spoken in
praise of truth, he introduces, with reference to this oracle, a
grave declaration, that he considers truth preferable at all

' Ki6ap(fSoi, played on the cithara, accompanying it with words.
2 Ki6api(7Tai, played on the cithara alone.
' fXsXog. * vSfiog. ^ avpiy^.

* Groskurd and Meineke propose emendations of the text of this
passage. The translation is rather a paraphrase^

B. IX. c. III. § 12. PHOCIS. 121

times, but especially in treating subjects of this kind. For it
is absurd, he says, if, in other things, we constantly follow this
practice, but that when we come to speak of the oracle, which
of all others is the most exempt from deception, we should
introduce tales so incredible and false. Yet immediately
afterwards he says, that it is the received opinion that
Apollo, by the aid of Themis, established this oracle with
a view to benefit the human race. He then explains .these
benefits, by saying, that men were invited to pursue a more
civilized mode of life, and were taught maxims of wisdom by
oracles ; by injunctions to perform or to abstain, or by posi-
tive refusal to attend to the prayers of petitioners. Some,
he says, suppose, that the god himself in a bodily form di-
rects these things ; others, that he communicates an intima-
tion of his will to men [by words].

12. And lower down, when speaking of the Delphians and
their origin, he says, that certain persons, called Parnassii,
an indigenous tribe, anciently inhabited Parnassus, about
which time Apollo, traversing the country, reclaimed men
from their savage state, by inducing them to adopt a more
civilized mode of life and subsistence ; that, setting out from
Athens on his way to Delphi, he took the same road along
which the Athenians at present conduct the procession of the
Pythias ; that when he arrived at the Panopeis, he put to
death Tityus, who was master of the district, a violent and
lawless man ; that the Parnassii having joined him informed
him of Python, another desperate man, surnamed the Dragon.
Whilst he was despatching this man with his arrows, they
shouted. Hie Paian ; ^ whence has been transmitted the custom
of singing the Paean before the onset of a battle ; that after the
death of the Python the Delphians burnt even his tent, as they
still continue to burn a tent in memorial of these events. Now
what can be more fabulous than Apollo discharging his arrows,
chastising Tityi and Pythons, his journey from Athens to
Delphi, and his travels over the whole country ? If he did
not consider these as fables, why did he call the fabulous
Themis a woman, and the fabulous dragon a man, unless he
intended to confound the provinces of history and fable.
His account of the ^tolians is similar to this. After having

^ Probably, says Pabner, the expression is derived from 'is -naii, O
strike, or Vt nai, 0 youth.

122 STRABO. CASArB. 423.

asserted that their country was never ravaged at any period,
he says, that at one time it was inhabited by ^tolians, who
had expelled the Barbarians ; that at another time, -^tolus,
together with the Epeii from Elis, inhabited it ; [that ^tolus
was overthrown by the Epeii,] and these again by Alcmaeon
and Diomedes.

I now return to the Phocians.

13. Immediately on the sea-coast, next after Anticyra,^ and
behind 2 it, is the small city Marathus ; then a promontory,
Pharygiura, which has a shelter for vessels ; then the harbour
at the farthest end, called Mychus,^ from the accident of its
situation between Helicon^ and Ascra.

Nor is Abj©,^ the seat of an oracle, far from these places,
nor Ambrysus,^ nor Medeon, of the same name as a city in
Boeotia.

In the inland parts, next after Delphi, towards the east is
Daulis,'^ a small town, where, it is gaid, Tereus, the Thracian,
was prince ; and there they say is the scene of the fable of
Philomela and Procne ; Thucydides lays it there ; but other
writers refer it to Megara. The name of the place is derived
from the thickets there, for they call thickets Dauli. Homer
calls it Daulis, but subsequent writers Daulia, and the words
" they who occupied Cyparissus," *

are understood in a double sense ; some persons supposing it
to have its name from the tree of the country, but others from
a village situated below the Lycoreian territory.

14. Panopeus, the present Phanoteus, the country of Epeius,
is on the confines of the district of Lebadeia. Here the fable
places the abode of Tityus. But Homer says, that the Phaea-
cians conducted Phadamanthus to Euboea,

" in order to see Tityus, son of the earth ; " '

* Aspra-Spitia.

^ oTTicrBev, " behind it," but Marathus is on the opposite side of the
bay. The ruins are indicated in modem maps.

^ The bay of Metochi d'Hagia. * Zagora.

* This place is represented in the Austrian map by ruins near Exarcho.
But how does Strabo place "not far from" the Crisfean Gulf, Abje,
which was certainly near Hyampolis, on the borders of the Locri Epicne-
midii ? It is on the authority of this passage only that geographers have
placed a second Abse behind Ambrysus, at the foot of Parnassus.

« Distomo ? 7 Daulia. » II. ii. 519. » Od. vii. 324.

B. IX. c. in. § 15, 16. PHOCIS. 123

they show also in the island a cave called Elarium, from Elara
the mother of Titjus, and an Heroum of Tityus, and some
kind of honours are spoken of; which are paid to him.

Near Lebadeia is Trachin, having the same name as that
in CEtaea ; it is a small Phocian town. The inhabitants are
called Trachinii.

1 5. Anemoreia ^ has its name from a physical accident, to
which it is liable. It is exposed to violent gusts of wind from
a place called Catopterius,^ a precipitous mountain, extending
from Parnassus. It was a boundary between Delphi and the
Phocians, when the Lacedaemonians made the Delphians
separate themselves from the common body of the Phocians,^
and permitted them to form an independent state.

Some call the place Anemoleia ; it was afterwards called by
others Hyampolis,* (and also Hya,) whither we said the Hy-
antes were banished from Boeotia. It is situated quite in the
interior, near Parapotamii, and is a different place from Hy-
ampea on Parnassus.

Elateia^ is the largest of the Phocian cities, but Homer was
not acquainted with it, for it is later than his times. It is
conveniently situated to repel incursions on the side of Thes-
saly. Demosthenes^ points out the advantage of its posi-
tion, in speaking of the confusion which suddenly arose, when
a messenger arrived to inform the Prytaneis of the capture of
Elateia.

16. Parapotamii is a settlement on the Cephissus, in the
neighbourhood of Phanoteus, Chseroneia, and Elateia. This
place, according to Theopompus, is distant from Chaeroneia
about 40 stadia, and is the boundary between the Ambryseis,
Panopeis, and Daulieis. It is situated at the entrance from
Bojotia to the Phocians, upon an eminence of moderate
height, between Parnassus and the mountain [Hadylium,
where there is an open space] of 5 stadia in extent, through
which runs the Cephissus, affording on each side a narrow
pass. This river has its source at Lilasa, a Phocian city, as
Homer testifies ;

* dvefiog, the wind. ' The Look-out. ' 457, b. c.

* This place was destroyed in the Persian war ; no remains existed in
the time of Pausanias.

* The ruins are situated on the east of Turkochorio, made a free state
by the Romans. Pausanias, b. x. ch. 34.

* Demos, pro Coronst. b. c. 338.

124 STRABO. Casatjb. 424.

" tliey who occupied Lilaea, near the source of the Cephissus ; " ^
and empties itself into the lake Copais. But Hadylium ex-
tends 60 stadia, as far as Hyphanteium, on which Orchomenus
is situated. Hesiod also enlarges on the river and its stream,
how it takes through the whole of Phocis an oblique and
serpentine course ;

" which, like a serpent, winds along Panopeus and the strong Glechon, and
through Orchomenus." *

The narrow pass near Parapotamii, or Parapotamia, (for
the name is written both ways,) was disputed in [the Phocian
war,] for this is the only entrance [into Phocis].^

There is a Cephissus in Phocis, another at Athens, and
another at Salamis. There is a fourth and a fifth at Sicyon
and at Scyrus ; [a sixth at Argos, having its source in the
Lyrceium].'^ At ApoUonia,^ also, near Epidamnus,^ there is
near the Gymnasium a spring, which is called Cephissus.

17. Daphnus"^ is at present in ruins. It was at one time a
city of Phocis, and lay close to the Eubcean Sea ; it divided
the Locri Epicnemidii into two bodies, namely, the Locri on
the side of Boeotia,^ and the Locri on the side of Phocis, which
then extended from sea to sea. A proof of this is the Sche-
dieum, [in Daphnus,] called the tomb of Schedius.^ [It has
been already said] that Daphnus [divides] Locris into two
parts, [in such a manner as to prevent] the Epicnemidii and
Opuntii from touching upon each other in any part. In after-
times Daphnus was included within the boundaries of the
[Opuntii].

On the subject of Phocis, this may suffice.

* II. ii. 523. ^ The quotation is from a lost poem.
^ Conjectures of Groskurd, and approved by Kramer.

* Meineke supposes these words to be an interpolation, because no
mention is made by other writers, nor by Strabo himself, in his enumer-
ation of the rivers in Argolis, of the existence of a river called Cephissus
at Argos.

^ Polina. ^ Dyrrachium, now Durazzo.

' The site appears to have been to the south-east of the modern town
Neochorio.

* From hence to the close of the paragraph the text is very corrupt ;
the restorations are due to the conjectures of Du Theil, Groskurd, and
Kramer.

' Schedius, according to Homer, II. ii. 517, and II. xvii. 306, was one
of the chiefs of the Phocians.

B. IX. c. IV. § 1, 2. LOCRIS. 125

CHAPTER IV.

1 . LocRis, which we are now to describe, follows next in
order.

It is divided into two parts, one of which is occupied by the
Locri opposite Euboea, and, as we have already said, form-
erly consisted of two bodies, situated one on each side of
Daphrius. The Locri Opuntii had their surname from Opus,^
the capital ; the Epicnemidii from a mountain called Cnemis. ^
The rest are the Locri Hesperii, who are called, also Locri
Ozolae. These are separated from the Locri Opuntii and
Epicnemidii by Parnassus, which lies between them, and by
the Tetrapolis of the Dorians. We shall first speak of the
Opuntii.

2. Immediately after Halae, where the Boeotian coast oppo-
site Euboea terminates, is the Opuntian bay. Opus is the
capital, as the inscription intimates, which is engraved on the
first of the five pillars at Thermopylae, near the Polyandrium : ^

" Opoeis, the capital of the Locri, hides in its bosom those who died in
defence of Greece against the Medes."

It is distant from the sea about 15 stadia, and 60 from the
naval arsenal. The arsenal is Cynus,"* a promontory, which
forms the boundary of the Opuntian bay. The latter is 40
stadia in extent. Between Opus and Cynus is a fertile plain,
opposite to JEdepsus in Euboea, where are the warm baths ^
of Hercules, and is separated by a strait of 160 stadia.
Deucalion is said to have lived at Cynus. There also is
shown the tomb of Pyrrha ; but that of DeucaHon is at
Athens. Cynus is distant from Mount Cnemis about 50
stadia. The island Atalanta^ is opposite to Opus, having the

' The ruins of Opus are indicated as existing between Talanti and
the sea.

2 A portion of the ridge of CEta, on the north-west of Talanti, now
Chlomos.

^ A monument, or cenotaph, common to many persons.

* The site is marked by a tower called Paleopyrgo, near the modern
Lebanitis.

* Mentioned by Athenseus, b. iii. Hot springs were generally sacred
to Hercules.

* Diodorus Siculus asserts that it was separated from the continent by

126 STRABO. Casaub. 425.

same name as the island in front of Attica. It is said, that
some Opuntii are to be found in the Eleian territory, whom
it is not worth while to notice, except that they pretend to
trace some affinity subsisting between themselves and the
Locri Opuntii. Homer ^ says that Patroclus was from Opus,
and that having committed murder undesignedly, he fled to
Peleus, but that the father Menoetius remained in his native
country ; for it is to Opus that Achilles promised Menoetius
that he would bring back Patroclus on his return from the
Trojan expedition.^ Not that Menoetius was king of the
Opuntii, but Ajax the Locrian, who, according to report, was
born at Narycus. The name of the person killed by Patro-
clus was ^anes ; a grove, called after him ^aneium, and a
fountain, ^anis, are shown.

3. Next after Cynus is Alope^ and Daphnus, which last,
we have said, is in ruins. At Alope is a harbour, distant
from Cynus about 90 stadia, and 120 from Elateia, in the
interior of the country. But these belong to the Maliac,
which is continuous with the Opuntian Gulf.

4. Next to Daphnus, at the distance of about 20 stadia by
sea, is Cnemides, a strong place, opposite to which in Euboea
is Cenaeum, a promontory, looking towards the west and the
Maliac Gulf, and separated by a strait of nearly 20 stadia.

At Cnemides we are in the territory of the Locri Epicne-
midii. Here are the Lichades, as they are called, three islands,
having their name from Lichas ; they lie in front of Cnemides.
Other islands also are met with in sailing along this coast,
which we purposely pass over.

At the distance of 20 stadia from Cnemides is a harbour,
above which at the same distance, in the interior, is situated
Thronium.'* Then the Boagrius, which flows beside Thro-
nium, empties itself into the sea. It has another name also,
that of Manes. It is a winter torrent ; whence its bed may
be crossed at times dry-shod, and at another it is two plethra
in width.

Then after these is Scarpheia, at a distance of 10 stadia

an earthquake ; but statements of this kind were commonly and hastily
made, where the natural appearances were favourable to them.

» II. xxiii. 85. 2 II. xviii. 326.

3 The ruins have been discovered by Gell on an insulated hill, near the
sea-shore.

"* Paleocastro, in Marmara, near Romani.

B. IX. c. IV. § 5-8. LOCRIS. 127

from the sea, and of 30 from Thronium, but at a little [less
from its harbour.] ^ Next are Nicsea and Thermopylae.

5. It is not worth while to speak of any of the other cities.
Of those mentioned by Homer, Calliarus is no longer inha-
bited, it is now a well-cultivated plain. Bessa, a sort of plain,
does not now exist. It has its name from an accidental
quality, for it abounds with woods. x^^P"^ exovcn ^t:ap(f>u~ic, &c.
It ought to be written with a double s, for it has its name from
Bessa, a wooded valley, like Nape,^ in the plain of Methymna,^
which Hellanicus, through ignorance of the local circum-
stances, improperly calls Lape ; but the demus in Attica, from
which the burghers are called Besaeenses, is written with a
single s.

6. Tarphe is situated upon a height, at the distance of 20
stadia from [Thronium]. It has a territory, productive and
well wooded ; for this place also has its name from its being
thickly wooded. It is now called Pharygae. A temple of Juno
Pharygasa is there, called so from the Argive Juno at Pharygae;
and the inhabitants assert that they are of Argive origin.

7. Homer does not mention, at least not in express words,
the Locri Hesperii, but only seems to distinguish them from
the people of whom we have spoken ;

" Locri, who dwell beyond the sacred Euboea ; " *

as if there were other Locri. They occupied the cities Am-
phissa^ and Naupactus.^ The latter still subsists near Antir-
rhium.'^ It has its name from the ships that were built there,
either because the Heraclidas constructed their fleet at this
place, or because the Locri, as Ephorus states, had built ves-
sels there long before that time. At present it belongs to the
^tolians, by a decree of Philip.

8. There also is Chalcis, mentioned by the poet^ in the
-^tolian Catalogue. It is below Calydon. There also is the
hill Taphiassus, on which is the monument of Nessus, and of
the other Centaurs. From the putrefaction of the bodies of
these people there flows, it is said, from beneath the foot of
that hill a stream of water, which exhales a foetid odour, and

• A conjecture by Groskurd.

2 ^ijffffat and vdirr], wooded hollows. ^ In the island of Lesbos.

* II. ii. 535. ' Salona, or Lampeni. • Lepanto.
^ Castel de Roumeli. s n ^^ q^q^

128 STRABO. Casaub. 427.'

contains clots of blood. Hence also the nation had the name
of Ozolae.^

Opposite Antirrhium is Molycreia,^ a small ^tolian city.

Araphissa is situated at the extremity of the Crisgean plain.
It was razed, as we have said before, by the Amphictyons.
OEanthia and Eupalium belong to the Locri. The whole voy-
age along the coast of the Locri is a little more than 200 stadia.

9. There is an Alope ^ both here among the Locri Ozolag, as
also among the Epicnemidii, and in the Phthiotis. These are
a colony of the Epicnemidii, and the Epizephyrii a colony of
the Ozolas.

10. jiEtolians are continuous with the Locri Hesperii, and
the ^nianes, who occupy CEta with the Epicnemidii, and be-
tween them Dorians. These last are the people who inha-
bited the Tetrapolis, which is called the capital of all the
Dorians. They possessed the cities Erineus, Boeum, Pindus,
Cytinium. Pindus is situated above Erineus. A river of the
same name flows beside it, and empties itself into the Cephis-
sus, not far from Lilaea. Some writers call Pindus, Acyphas.

jEgimius, king of these Dorians, when an exile from his
kingdom, was restored, as they relate, by Hercules. He re-
quited this favour after the death of Hercules at (Eta by
adopting Hyllus, the eldest of the sons of Hercules, and both he
and his descendants succeeded him in the kingdom. It was
from this place that the Heracleidae set out on their return to
Peloponnesus.

11. These cities were for some time of importance, although
they were small, and their territory not fruitful. They were
afterwards neglected. After what they suffered in the Pho-
cian war and under the dominion of the Macedonians, ^to-
lians, and Athamanes, it is surprising that even a vestige of
them should have remained to the time of the Romans.

It was the same with the ^nianes, who were exterminated
by JEtolians and Athamanes. The ^tolians were a very
powerful people, and carried on war together with the Acar-
nanians. The Athamanes were the last of the Epeirotse, who
attained distinction when the rest were declining, and acquired
power by the assistance of their king Amynander. The
^nianes, however, kept possession of CEta.

' From d^elv, to smell. ^ Maurolimne.

^ The site is unknown.

B. IX. c. IV. § 12—15. LOCRIS. 129

12. This mountain extends from Thermopylae and the east, to
the Ambracian Gulf and the west ; it may be said to cut at right
angles the mountainous tract, extending from Parnassus as far
as Pindus, and to the Barbarians who live beyond. The por-
tion of this mountain verging towards Thermopylae ^ is called
CEta ; it is 200 stadia in length, rocky and elevated, but the
highest part is at Thermopylae, for there it forms a peak, and
terminates with acute and abrupt rocks, continued to the sea.
It leaves a narrow passage for those who are going from
Thessaly to Locris.

13. This passage is called Pylae, or gates, straits, and Ther-
mopyla3, because near the straits are hot springs, which are
held in honour as sacred to Hercules. The mountain above
is called Callidromus ; but some writers call by the name of
Callidromus the remaining part of the range extending
through JEtolia and Acarnania to the Ambracian Gulf.

At Thermopylae within the straits are strongholds, as
Nicaea, on the sea of the Locri, Teichius and Heracleia above
it, formerly called Trachin, founded by the Lacedaemonians.
Heracleia is distant from the ancient Trachin about 6 stadia.
Next follows Rhoduntia, strong by its position.

14. These places are rendered difficult of access by a rocky
country, and by Bodies of water, forming ravines through
which they pass. For besides the Spercheius,^ which flows
past Anticyra, there is the Dyras, which, it is said, endea-
voured to extinguish the funeral pile of Hercules, and another
river, the Melas, distant about 5 stadia from Trachin. He-
rodotus says,^ that to the south of Trachin there is a deep
fissure, through which the Asopus, (which has the same name
as other rivers that we have mentioned,) empties itself into
the sea without the Pylas, having received the river Phoenix
which flows from the south, and unites with it. The latter
river bears the name of the hero, whose tomb is shown near it.
From the Asopus (Phoenix?) to Thermopylae are 15 stadia.

15. These places were of the greatest celebrity when they
formed the keys of the straits. There were frequent contests
for the ascendency between the inhabitants without and those
within the straits. Philip used to call Chalcis and Corinth
the fetters of Greece with reference to the opportunity which
they afforded for invasions from Macedonia ; and persons in

' Near Dervend-Elapha. « The Hellada. ^ B. vii. c. 198, and c. 200.

130 STRABO. Casaub. 429.

later times called both these places and Demetrias " the
fetters," for Demetrias commanding Pelion and Ossa, com-
manded also the passes at Tempe. Afterwards, however,
when the whole country was subject to one power, the passes
were freely open to all.^

16. It was at these straits that Leonidas and his com-
panions, together with a small body of persons from the
neighbourhood, resisted the numerous forces of the Persians,
until the Barbarians, making a circuit of the mountains along
narrow paths, surrounded and cut them to pieces. Their place
of burial, the Polyandrium, is still to be seen there, and the
celebrated inscription sculptured on theLacedsemonian pillar;
" Stranger, go tell Lacedaemon that we lie here in obedience
to her laws/'

17. There is also a large harbour here and a temple of
Ceres, in which the Amphictyons at the time of every Pylaean
assembly offered sacrifice. From the harbour to the Hera-
cleian Trachin are 40 stadia by land, but by sea to Cenaeum ^
it is 70 stadia. The Spercheius empties itself immediately
without the Pylae. To Pylae from the Euripus are 530 stadia.
And here Locris terminates. The parts without the Pylse to-
wards the east, and the Maliac Gulf, belong to the Thessali-
ans ; those towards the west, to the JEtolians and Acarna-
nians. The Athamanes are extinct.

18. The Thessalians form the largest and most ancient
community. One part of them has been mentioned by Homer,
and the rest by many other writers. Homer constantly men-
tions the ^tolians under one name ; he places cities, and not
nations dependent upon them, if we except the Curetes, whom
we must place in the division of jEtolians.

We must begin our account with the Thessalians, omitting
very ancient and fabulous stories, and what is not generally
admitted, (as we have done in other instances,) but propose
to mention what appears suited to our purpose.

' Translated according to Kramer's proposed emendation. Demetrias,
according to Leake, occupies the southern or maritime face of a height
called Goritza, which projects from the coast of Magnesia between 2 and
3 miles to the southward of the middle of Volo. Pausanias, b. vii. c. 7,
says that Philip called Chalcis, Corinth, and Magnesia in Thessaly, the
" Keys of Greece." Livy, b. xxxii. c. 37.

2 C. Lithada.

B. IX. c. V. § 1. THESSALY. 131

CHAPTER V.

1. The sea-coast, extending from Thermopyte to tiie
mouths of the Peneius,^ and the extremities of Pelion, looking
towards the east, and the northern extremities of Euboea, is
that of Thessaly. The parts opposite Euboea and Thermo-
pylae are occupied by Malienses, and by Achaean Phthiotae ;
those towards Pelion by the Magnetes. This may be called
the eastern and maritime side of Thessaly. From either side
from Pelion, and the Peneius, towards the inland parts are
Macedonians, who extend as far as Paeonia, (Pindus ?) and the
Epeirotic nations. From Thermopylae, the (Etasan and -^to-
lian mountains, which approach close to the Dorians, and
Parnassus, are parallel to the Macedonians. The side towards
the Macedonians may be called the northern side ; the other,
the southern. There remains the western side, enclosed by
-^tolians and Acarnanians, by Amphilochians and Athamanes,
who are Epirotae ; by the territory of the Molotti, formerly
said to be that of the ^thices, and, in short, by the country
about Pindus. Thessaly,^ in the interior, is a plain country
for the most part, and has no mountains, except Pelion and
Ossa. These mountains rise to a considerable height, but do
not encompass a large tract of country, but terminate in the
plains.

2. These are the middle parts of Thessaly, a district of very
fertile country, except that part of it which is oveVflowed by
rivers. The Peneius flows through the middle of the country,
and receiving many rivers, frequently overflows. Form_erly,
according to report, the plain was a lake ; it is enclosed on all
sides inland by mountains, and the sea-coast is more elevated
than the plains. When a chasm was formed, at the place now
called Tempe, by shocks of an earthquake, and Ossa was riven
from Olympus, the Peneius flowed out through it to the sea,
and drained this tract of country. Still there remained the
large lake Nessonis, and the lake Boebeis ; which is of less
extent than the Nessonis, and nearer to the sea-coast.

• The Salambria.

' This paragraph is translated as proposed by Meineke, who has fol-
lowed the suggestions of Du Theil, Groskurd, and Kramer, in correctiiig
the text.

K 2

132 STRABO. Casaub. 430.

3. Such then is Thessaly, which is divided into four parts,
Phthiotis, Hestiaeotis, Thessaliotis, and Pelasgiotis.

Phthiotis comprises the southern parts, extending along
(Eta from the Maliac and (or) PylaTc Gulf ^ as far as Dolopia
and Pindus, increasing in breadth to Pharsalia and the Thes-
salian plains.

Hestiaeotis comprises the western parts and those between
Pindus and Upper Macedonia ; the rest is occupied by the
inhabitants of the plains below Hestiaeotis, who are called
Pelasgiotae, and approach close to the Lower Macedonians ; by
the [Thessalians] also, who possess the country ne^jit in
order, as far as the coast of Magnesia.

The names of many cities might here be enumerated,
which are celebrated on other accounts, but particularly as
being mentioned by Homer ; few of them, however, but most
of all Larisa, preserve their ancient importance.

4. The poet having divided the whole of the country, which
we call Thessaly, into ten^ parts and dynasties, and having
taken in addition some portion of the CEtaean and Locrian ter-
ritory, and of that also which is now assigned to the Macedon-
ians, shows (what commonly happened to every country) the
changes which, entirely or in part, they undergo according to
the power possessed by their respective governors.

5. The poet first enumerates the Thessalians subject to
Achilles, who occupied the southern side, and adjoined QEta,
and the Locri Epicnemidii ;

" All who dwelt in Pelasgic Argos ; they who occupied Alus, Alope, and
Trachin; they who possessed Phthia, and Hellas, abounding with beauti-
ful women, were called Myrmidones, Hellenes, and Achaei." ^

He joins together with these the people under the command of
Phoenix, and makes them compose one common expedition.
The poet nowhere mentions the Dolopian forces in the battles
near Ilium, neither does he introduce their leader Phoenix, as
undertaking, like Nestor, dangerous enterprises. But Phoenix
is mentioned by others, as by Pindar,

* G. of Zeitun.

2 The ten states or dynasties mentioned by Homer were those of, ] .
Achilles. 2. Protesilaiis. 3. Eumelus. 4. Philoctetes. 5. Podalirius
and Machaon. 6. Eurypyhis. 7. Polypoetes. 8. Guneus. 9. Pro-
thoiis. These are named in the Catalogue in the 2nd Book of the Iliad ;
the 10th, Dolopia, of which Phoenix was chief, in II. xvi. 196.

3 II. ii. 681.

B. IX. C.V.J 6. THESSALY. 133

" Who led a brave band of Dolopian slingers,

Who were to aid the javelins of the Danai, tamers of horses."

The words of the poet are to be understood according to the
figure of the grammarians, by which something is suppressed,
for it would be ridiculous for the king to engage in the expe-
dition,

(*•' I live at the extremity of Phthia, chief of the Dolopians," ')
and his subjects not to accompany him. For [thus] he would
not appear to be a comrade of Achilles in the expedition, but
only as the commander of a small body of men, and a speaker,
and if so, a counsellor. The verses seem to imply this mean-
ing, for they are to this effect,

■ "To be an eloquent speaker, and to achieve great deeds."'

From this it appears that Homer considered the forces
under Achilles and Phoenix as constituting one body ; but the
places mentioned as being under the authority of Achilles, are
subjects of controversy.

Some have understood Pelasgic Argos to be a Thessalian
city, formerly situated near Larisa, but now no longer in ex-
istence. Others do not understand a city to be meant by this
name, but the Thessalian plain, and to have been so called by
Abas, who established a colony there from Argos.

6. With respect to Phthia, some suppose it to be the same
as Hellas and Achaia, and that these countries form the south-
ern portion in the division of Thessaly into two parts. But
others distinguish Phthia and Hellas. The poet seems to dis-
tinguish them in these verses ;

" they who occupied Phthia and Hellas," '
as if they were two countries. And, again,

" Then far away through wide Greece I fled and came to Phthia,"*
and,

"There are many Achaean women in Hellas and Phthia."*

The poet then makes these places to be two, but whether
cities or countries he does not expressly say. Some of the ,
later writers, who affirm that it is a country, suppose it to
have extended from Palaepharsalns to Thebae Phthiotides.
In this country also is Thetidium, near both the ancient and
the modern Pharsalus; and it is conjectured from Theti-

» II. ix. 480. 2 II. ix. 443. 3 II II 683.

♦ II. ix. 498. » II. ix. 395.

134 STRABO. Casaub. 432.

dium that the country, in which it is situated, was a part of
that under the comratind of Achilles. Others, who regard it
as a city, allege that the Pharsalii show at the distance of 60
stadia from their own city, a city in ruins, which they believe
to be Hellas, and two springs near it, Messei's and Hypereia.
But the Melitaeenses say, that at the distance of about 10
stadia from their city, was situated Hellas on the other side
of the Enipeus,^ when their own city had the name of Pyrrha,
and that the Hellenes migrated from Hellas, which was built
in a low situation, to theirs. They adduce in proof of this
the tomb of Hellen, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, which is in
their market-place. For according to historians, Deucalion
was king of Phthiotis and of all Thessaly. The Enipeus flows
from Othrys^ beside Pharsalus,^ and empties itself into the
Apidanus,'^ and the latter into the Peneius.

Thus much, then, respecting the Hellenes.

7. The people under the command of Achilles, Protesilaus,
and Philoctetes, are called Phthii. The poet furnishes evi-
dence of this. Having recited in the Catalogue of those
under the command of Achilles,

" the people of Phthia,"^

he represents them at the battle at the ships, as remaining in
the ships with Achilles, and inactive; but those under the
command of Philoctetes, as fighting with Medon [as their
leader], and those under the command of Protesilaus, with
Podarces [as their chief]. Of these the poet speaks in
general terms ;

" there were BcEoti and laones wearing long robes, Locri, Phthii, and
illustrious Epeii."*

But here he particularizes them ;

"at the head of the Phthii fought Medon and Podarces, firm in battle.
These armed with breastplates fought together with Boeoti, at the head of
the magnanimous Phthii, keeping away the enemy from the ships." ^

Perhaps the people with Eurypylus were called Phthii, as
they bordered upon the country of the latter. At present,
however, historians assign to Magnesia the country about
Ormenium, which was subject to Eurypylus, and the whole of
that subject to Philoctetes ; but they regard the country un-

' The Vlacho. ' Part of the range of Mount Gura.

^ Satalda, The plain of Pharsalia is to the north. •* The Gura.

* II. ii. 683. 6 II. xiii. 685. ^ II. xiii. 693, 699,

B. IX. c.v. §8. THESSALY. 135

der the command of Protesilaus as belonging to Phtliia, from
Dolopia and Pindus to the sea of Magnesia ; but as far as the
citj Antron, (now written in the plural number,) which was
subject to Protesilaus, beginning from Trachinia and OEta, is
the width of the territory belonging to Peleus and Achilles.
But this is nearly the whole length of the Maliac Gulf.

8. They entertain doubts resl)ecting Halus and Alope,
whether Homer means the places which are now comprised
in the Phthiotic government, or those among the Locri, since
the dominion of Achilles extended hither as well as to Tra-
chin and the CEtaean territory. For Halus and Halius, as
well as Alope, are on the coast of the Locri. But some sub-
stitute Halius for Alope, and write the verse in this manner ;
" they who inhabited Halus, and Halius, and Trachin." '

But the Phthiotic Halus lies under the extremity of the moun-
tain Othrys, which lies to the north of Phthiotis, and borders
upon the mountain Typhrestus and the Dolopians, and
thence stretches along to the country near the Maliac Gulf.
Halus,^ either masculine or feminine, for it is used in both
genders, is distant from Itonus^ about 60 stadia. Athamas
founded Halus ; it was destroyed, but subsequently [restored by
the Pharsalii]. It is situated above the Crocian plain, and the
river Amphrysus* flows by its walls. Below the Crocian plain
lies Thebae Phthiotides ; Halus likewise, which is in Achaia,
is called Phthiotis ; this, as well as the foot of Mount Othrys,
approaches close to the Malienses. As Phylace loo, which was
under the command of Protesilaus, so Halus also belongs to
Phthiotis, which adjoins to the Malienses. Halus is distant from
Thebes about 100 stadia, and lies in the middle between Phar-
salus and Thebse Phthiotides. Philip, however, took it from
the latter, and assigned it to the Pharsalii. Thus it happens,
as we have said before, that boundaries and the distribution of
nations and places are in a state of continual change. Thus
Sophocles also called Phthiotis, Trachinia, Artemidorus places
Halus on the coast beyond the Maliac Gulf, but as belonging
to Phthiotis. For proceeding thence in the direction of the
Peneius, he places Pteleum after Antron, then Halus at the
distance of 110 stadia from Pteleum.

' II. ii. 682. 2 5"AXog, or?/"A\oc. ^ Armyrus.

* Hence Virgil, Geor. 3, calls Apollo, Pastor ab Amphryso.

136 STRABO. Casaub. 433.

I have already spoken of Trachin, and described the nature
of the place. The poet mentions it by name.

9. As Homer frequently mentions the Spercheius as a river
of the country, having its source in the Typhrestus, a Dryo-
pian mountain, formerly called [Tymphrestus], and empty-
ing itself near Thermopylae, between Trachin and Lamia,^ he
might imply that whatever parts of the Maliac Gulf were
either within or without the Pylas, were subject to Achilles.

The Spercheius is distant about 30 stadia from Lamia,
which lies above a plain, extending to the Maliac Gulf. That
the Spercheius is a river of the country [subject to Achil-
les], appears from the words of Achilles, who says, that he
had devoted his hair to the Spercheius ; and from the cir-
cumstance, that Menesthius, one of his commanders, was said
to be the son of Spercheius and the sister of Achilles.

It is probable that all the people under the command of
Achilles and Patroclus, and who had accompanied Peleus in
his banishment from JEgina, had the name of Myrmidons,
but all the Phthiotse were called Achaeans.

10. They reckon in the Phthiotic district, which was sub-
ject to Achilles, beginning from the Malienses, a considerable
number of towns, and among them Thebee Phthiotides, Echi-
nus, Lamia, near which the war was carried on between the
Macedonians and Antipater, against the Athenians. In this
war Leosthenes, the Athenian general, was killed, [and Leon-
natus,] one of the companions of Alexander the king. Be-
sides the above-mentioned towns, we must add [Narthac]ium,
Erineus, Coroneia, of the same name as the town in Boeotia,
Melitaga, Thaumaci, Proerna, Pharsalus, Eretria, of the same
name as the Euboic town, Paracheloitae, of the same name
as those in JEtolia ; for here also, near Lamia, is a river Ache-
lous, on the banks of which live the Paracheloitae.

This district, lying to the north, extended to the north-
western territory of the Asclepiadae, and to the territory of
Eurypylus and Protesilaus, inclining to the east ; on the south
it adjoined the (Etaean territory, which was divided into four-
teen demi, and contained Heracleia and Dryopis, which was
once a community of four cities, (a Tetrapolis,) like Doris,
and accounted the capital of the Dryopes in Peloponnesus.
To the CEtaean district belong also the Acyphas, Parasopias,
' Isdin or Zeitun,

B. IX. c. V. 5 U— 13. THESSALY. 137

OEneiadae, and Anticyra, of the same name as the town among
the Locri Hesperii. I do not mean that these divisions al-
ways continued the same, for thej underwent various changes.
The most remarkable, however, are worthy of notice.

11. The poet with sufficient clearness .describes the situation
of the Dolopes, as at the extremity of Phthia, and says that
both they and the Phthiotas were under the command of the
same chief, Peleus ;

" I lived," he says, "at the farthest part of Phthia, king of the Dolopes."'
Peleus, however, had conferred on him the authority.

This region is close to Pindus, and the places about it, most
of which belong to the Thessalians. For in consequence of
the renown and ascendency of the Thessalians and Mace-
donians, those Epeirotag, who bordered nearest upon them, be-
came, some voluntarily, others by force, incorporated among
the Macedonians and Thessalians. In this manner the Atha-
manes, -^thices, and Talares were joined to the Thessalians,
and the Orestas, Pelagones, and Elimiotae to the Macedonians.

12. Pindus is a large mountain, having on the north Mace-
donia, on the west Perrhaebi, settlers from another country,
on the south Dolopes, [and on the east Hestiseotis] which
belongs to Thessaly. Close upon Pindus dwelt Talares,
a tribe of Molotti, detached from the Molotti about Mount
Tomarus, and ^thices, among whom the poet says the Cen-
taurs took refuge when expelled by Peirithous.^ They
are at present, it is said, extinct. But this extinction is to
be understood in two senses ; either the inhabitants have
been exterminated, and the country deserted, or the name of
the nation exists no longer, or the community does not pre-
serve its ancient form. Whenever the community, which
continues, is insignificant, we do not think it worth while to
record either its existence or its change of name. But when
it has any just pretensions to notice, it is necessary to remark
the change which it has undergone.

13. It remains for us to describe the tract of sea-coast sub-
ject to Achilles : we begin from Thermopylae, for we have
spoken of the coast of Locris, and of the interior.

Thermopylas is separated from the Cengeum by a strait 70
stadia across. Coasting beyond the Pylae, it is at a distance
from the Spercheius of about 10, (60 ?) and thence to Phalara
' II. ix. 484. 2 II. u_ 744.

138 STRABO. Casaub. 435.

of 20 stadia. Above Phalara, 50 stadia from the sea, lies the
city of the [Lamians]. Then coasting along the shore 100
stadia, we find above it, Echinus. At the distance of 20 stadia
from the following tract of coast, in the interior, is Larisa
Cremaste, which has the name also of Larisa Pelasgia.

14. Then follows a small island, Mjonnesus ; next An-
tron ; which was subject to Protesilaus. Thus much concern-
ing the territory subject to Achilles.

As the poet, in naming the chiefs, and cities under their
rule, has divided the country into numerous well-known parts,
and has given an accurate account of the whole circuit of
Thessaly, we shall follow him, as before, in completing the
description of this region.

Next to the people under the command of Achilles, he
enumerates those under the command of Protesilaus. They
were situated, next, along the sea-coast which was subject to
Achilles, as far as Antron. The boundary of the country
under the command of Protesilaus, is determined by its being
situated without the Maliac Gulf, yet still in Phthiotis, though
not within Phthiotis subject to Achilles.

Phylace ^ is near Thebse Plithiotides, which was subject to
Protesilaus, as were also Halus, Larisa Cremaste, and Deme-
trium, all of which lie to the east of Mount Othrys.

The Demetrium he speaks of ^ as an enclosure sacred to Ceres,
and calls it Pyrasus. Pyrasus was a city with a good harbour,
having at the distance of 2 stadia from it a grove, and a temple
consecrated to Ceres. It is distant from Thebae 20 stadia.
The latter is situated above Pyrasus. Above Thebas in the
inland parts is the Crocian plain at the extremity of the moun-
tain Othrys. Through this plain flows the river Amphrysus.
AbdVe it is the Itonus, where is the temple of the Itonian
Minerva, from which that in Boeotia has its name, also the
river Cuarius. [Of this river and] of Arne we have spoken
in our account of Boeotia.

These places are in Thessaliotis, one of the four divisions of
all Thessaly, in which were the possessions of Eurypylus.
Phyllus, where is a temple of the Phyllaean Apollo, Ichnae,
where the Ichnsean Themis is worshipped, Cierus, and [all
the places as far as] Athamania, are included in Thessaliotis.

At Antron, in the strait near Eubcea, is a sunk rock, called
» Above S. Theodoro. « II. u. 695.

B. IX. c. V. § 15. THESSALY. 139

" the Ass of Antron." Next are Pteleum and Halus ; next
the temple of Ceres, and Pyrasus in ruins ; above these, Thebae ;
then Pyrrha, a promontory, and two small islands near, one of
which is called Pyrrha, the other Deucalion. Somewhere
here ends the territory of Phthiotis.

15. The poet next mentions the people under Eumelus, and
the continuous tract of coast which now belongs to Magnesia,
and the Pelasgiotis.

Pherae is the termination of the Pelasgic plains towards
Magnesia, which plains extend as far as Pelion, a distance of
160 stadia. Pagasse is the naval arsenal of Pherae, from which
it is distant 90 stadia, and 20 from lolcus. lolcus has been
razed from ancient times. It was. from this place that Pelias
despatched Jason and the ship Argo. Pagasae had its name,^
according to mythologists, from the building of the ship Argo
at this place. Others, with more probability, suppose that the
name of the place was derived from the springs, (Tr/^ya/,) which
are very numerous and copious. Near it is Aphetae, (so
named) as the starting-place^ from which the Argonauts set
off. lolcus is situated 7 stadia from Demetrias, overlooking
the sea. Demetrias was founded by Demetrius Poliorcetes,
who called it after his own name. It is situated between
Nelia and Pagasae on the sea. He collected there the inhabit-
ants of the neighbouring small cities, Nelia, Pagasse, Orme-
nium, and besides these, Rhizus, Sepias, Olizon, Boebe, and
lolcus, which are at present villages belonging to Demetrias.
For a long time it was a station for vessels, and a royal seat of
the Macedonian kings. It had the command of Tempe, and
of both the mountains Pelion and Ossa. At present its ex-
tent of power is diminished, yet it still surpasses all the cities
in Magnesia.

The lake Boebeis ^ is near Pherae,'' and approaches close to
the extremities of Pelion and Magnesia. Bcebe is a small
place situated on the lake.

As civil dissensions and usurpations reduced the flourish-
ing condition of lolcus, formerly so powerful, so they affected
Pherae in the same manner, which was raised to prosperity,
and was destroyed by tyrants.

Near Demetrias flows the Anaurus. The continuous line

' Trriyvvfii, to fasten. ' a<ptTr]piov, a starting-place.

^ Karlas. * Velestina.

140 STRABO. Casaub. 436

of coast is called also lolcus. Here was held the Pylaic
(Peliac ?) assembly and festival.

Artemidorus places the Gulf of Pagasae farther from Deme-
trias, near the places subject to Philoctetes. In the gulf he says
is the island Cicynethijs/ and a small town of the same name.

16.. The poet next enumerates the cities subject to Philoc-
tetes.

Methone is not the Thracian Methone razed by Philip.
We have already noticed the change of name these places and
others in the Peloponnesus have undergone. Other places
enumerated as subject to Philoctetes, are Thaumacia, Olizon,
and Meliboea, all along the shore next adjacent.

In front of the Magnetos lie clusters of islands ; the most
celebrated are Sciathus,^ Peparethus,^ Icus/ Halonnesus, and
Scyrus,^ which contain cities of the same name. Scyrus how-
ever is the most famous of any for the friendship which sub-
sisted between Lycomedes and Achilles, and for the birth and
education of Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles. In after
times, when Philip became powerful, perceiving that the
Athenians were masters of the sea, and sovereigns both of
these and other islands, he made those islands which lay near
his own country more celebrated than any of the rest. For
as his object in waging war was the sovereignty of Greece,
he attacked those places first which were near him ; and as
he attached to Macedonia many parts of Magnesia itself, of
Thrace, and of the rest of the surrounding country, so also he
seized upon the islands in front of Magnesia, and made the
possession of islands which were before entirely unknown, a
subject of warlike contention, and brought them into notice.

Scyrus however is particularly celebrated in ancient his-
tories. It is also highly reputed for the excellence of its
goats, and the quarries of variegated marble, such as the
Carystian, the Deucallian, (Docimaean?) the Synnadic, and
the Hierapolitic kinds. For there may be seen at Rome
columns, consisting, of a single stone, and large slabs of
variegated marble, (from Scyrus,) with which the city is em-
bellished both at the public charge and at the expense of indi-
viduals, which has caused works of white marble to be little
esteemed.

Trikeri. 2 Sciathos. ^ Scopelo ?

* Selidromi? * Scyros.

B. IX. c. V. § 17. THESSALY. 141

17. The poet having proceeded so far along the Magnesian
coast, returns to Upper Thessaly, for beginning from Dolopia
and Pindus he goes through the region extending along
Phthiotis to Lower Thessaly.

" They who occupy Tricca and rocky Ithome." '
These places belong to Histiaeotis, which was formerly called
Doris. When it was in the possession of the Perrhasbi, who de-
stroyed Histiaeotis in Euboea, and had removed the inhabitants
by force to the continent, they gave the country the name of
Histiaeotis, on account of the great numbers of Histiaeans among
the settlers. This country and Dolopia are called Upper Thes-
saly, which is in a straight line with Upper Macedonia, as
Lower Thessaly is in a straight line with Lower Macedonia.

Tricca,^ where there is a very ancient and famous temple of
^sculapius, borders upon the Dblopes, and the parts about
Pindus.

Ithome, which has the same name as the Messenian Ithome,
ought not, they say, to be pronounced in this manner, but
should be pronounced without the first syllable, Thome, for
this was its former name. At present, it is changed to
[Thumasum]. It is a spot strong by nature, and in reality
rocky. It lies between four strong-holds, which form a square,
Tricca, Metropolis, Pelinnaeum, and Gomphi.^ Ithome be-
longs to the district of the Metropolitae. Metropolis was
formed at first out of three small obscure cities, and after-
wards more were included, and among these Ithome. Calli-
machus says in his Iambics,

" among the Venuses, (for the goddess bears several titles,) Vemis Cast-
nietis surpasses all others in wisdom,"

for she alone accepts the sacrifice of swine. Certainly Gulli-
machus, if any person could be said to possess information,
was well informed, and it was his object, as he himself says,
all his life to relate these fables. Later writers, however,
have proved that there was not one Venus only, but several,
who accepted that sacrifice, from among w^hom the goddess
worshipped at Metropolis came, and that this [foreign] rite
was delivered down by one of the cities which contributed to
form that settlement.

' II. ii. 729. 2 Tricala.

' The ruins are pointed out to the south of Stagus Kalabak.

142 STRABO. Casaub. 438.

Pharcadon also is situated in the Hestiaeotis. The Peneius
and the Curalius flow through jt. The Curalius, after flow-
ing beside the temple of the Itonian Minerva, empties itself
into the Peneius.

The Peneius itself rises in Mount Pindus, as I have before
said. It leaves Tricca, Pelinnaeum, and Pharcadon on the
left hand, and takes its course beside Atrax and Larisa.
After having received the rivers of the Thessaliotis it flows
onwards through Tempe, and it empties itself into the sea.

Historians speak of (Echalia, the city of Eurytus, as exist-
ing in these parts, in Euboea also, and in Arcadia ; but some
give it one name, others another, as I have said in the de-
scription of Peloponnesus.

They inquire particularly, which of these was the city
taken by Hercules, and which was the city intended by the
author of the poem, " The Capture of CEchalia ? "

The places, however, were subject to the Asclepiadae.

18. The poet next mentions the country which was under
the dominion of Eurypylus ;

" They who possessed Ormeiiium and the spring Hypereia,

And they who occupied Asterium and the white peaks of Titanus." '

Ormenium is now called Orminium. It is a village situ-
ated below Pelion, near the Pagasitic Gulf, but was one of
the cities which contributed to form the settlement of Deme-
trias, as I have before said.

The lake Boebeis must be near, because both Boebe and
Ormenium belonged to the cities lying around Demetrias.

Ormenium is distant by land 2? stadia from Demetrias.
The site of lolcus, which is on the road, is distant 7 stadia
from Demetrias, and the remaining 20 from Ormenium.

Demetrius of Scepsis says, that Phcenix came from Or-
menium, and that he fled thence from his father Amyntor,
the son of Ormenus, to Phthia, to king Peleus. For this place
was founded by Ormenus, the son of Cercaphus, the son of
>(Eolus. The sons of Ormenus w^ere Amyntor and Euaemon ;
the son of the former was Phoenix, and of the latter, Eurypy-
lus. The succession to his possessions was preserved secure
for Eurypylus, after the departure of Phoenix from his home,
and we ought to write the verse of the poet in this manner :

> II. ii. 734.

B. IX. c. V. § 18, 19. THESSALY. 143

"as when I first left Ormenium, abounding with flocks," ^
instead of

" left Hellas, abounding with beautiful women."
But Crates makes Phoenix a Phocasan, conjecturing tliis
from the helmet of Meges, which Ulysses wore on the night
expedition ; of which helmet the poet says,

" Autolycus brought it away from Eleon, out of the house of Amyntor,
the son of Ormenus, having broken through the thick walls. "^

Now Eleon was a small city on Parnassus, and by Amyn-
tor, the son of Ormenus, he could not mean any other person
than the father of Phoenix, and that Autolycus, who lived on
Parnassus, was in the habit of digging through the houses of
his neighbours, which is the common practice of every house-
breaker, and not of persons living at a distance. But Deme-
trius the Scepsian says, that there is no such place on Par-
nassus as Eleon, but Neon, which was built after the Trojan
war, and that digging through houses was not confined to
robbers of the neighbourhood. Other things might be ad-
vanced, but I am unwilling to insist long on this subject.
Others write the words

"fromHeleon;"
but this is a Tanagrian town ; and the words

" Then far away I fled through Hellas and came to Phthia,"'
would make this passage absurd.

Hypereia is a spring in the middle of the city of the Phe-
raei [subject to Eumelus]. It would therefore be absurd [to
assign it to Eurypylus].

Titanus'* had its name from the accident of its colour, for
the soil of the country near Arne and [ Aphe]tse is white, and
Asterium is not far from these places.

19. Continuous with this portion of Thessaly are the peo-
ple subject to Polypoetes.

" They who possessed Argissa ; those who inhabited Gyrtone,*
Orthe, Elone, and the white city Oloosson."^

This country was formerly inhabited by Perrhaebi, who

» II. ix. 447. ' II. X. 226. ^ n ix. 424.

* TiTavog, chalk. * Tcheritchiano.

« II. ii. 738.

144 STRABO. Casaub. 439.

possessed the part towards the sea and the Peneius, as far as ^
its mouth and the city Gyrton, belonging to the district Per-
rhasbis. Afterwards the Lapithae, Ixion and his son Peiri-
thous, having reduced the PerrhaBbi,^ got possession of these
places. Peirithous took possession also of Pelion, having ex-
pelled by force the Centaurs, a savage tribe, who inhabited
it. These

" he drove from Pelion to the neighbourhood of the -^thices, ' '

but he delivered up the plains to the Lapithae. The Perrhsebi
kept possession of some of these parts, those, namely, towards
Olympus, and in some places they lived intermixed altogether
with the Lapithse.

Argissa, the present Argura, is situated upon the banks of
the Peneius. Atrax lies above it at the distance of 40 stadia,,
close to the river. The intermediate country along the side
of the river was occupied by Perrhaebi.

Some call Orthe the citadel of the Phalannaei. Phalanna
is a Perrhaebic city on the Peneius, near Tempe.

The Perrha2bi, oppressed by the Lapithae, retreated in great
numbers to the mountainous country about Pindus, and to the
Athamanes and Dolopes ; but the Larisaei became masters of
the country and of the Perrhaibi who remained there. The
Larissei lived near the Peneius, but in the neighbourhood of
the Perrhaebi. They occupied the most fertile portion of the
plains, except some of the very deep valleys near the lake
Nessonis, into which the river, when it overflowed, usually
carried away a portion of the arable ground belonging to the
Larisaei, who afterwards remedied this by making embank-
ments.

These people were in possession of Perrhsebia, and levied
imposts until Philip became master of the country.

Larisa is a place situated on Ossa, and there is Larisa
Cremaste, by some called Pelasgia. In Crete also is a city
Larisa, the inhabitants of which were embodied with those of
Hierapytna ; and from this place the plain below is called the
Larisian plain. In Peloponnesus the citadel of the Argives is

' Meineke suggests the reading fiSTa^v, between, instead of /xsxpi, as
far as.

^ The words after Perrhaebi, eig rrfv Iv ry jxeffoyai^ TroTafiiav, into the
country in the interior lying along the river, are omitted, as suggested
by Meineke. ^ II. ii. 744.

B. IX. c. V. J 20. THESSALY. 145

called Larisa, and there is a river Larisus, which separates
Eleia from Dyme. Theopompus mentions a city Larisa, situ-
ated on the immediate confines of this country. In Asia is
Larisa Phriconis near Cume, and another Larisa near Hamax-
itus, in the Troad. There is also an Ephesian Larisa, and a
Larisa in Syria. At 50 stadia from Mitylene are the Lari-
scean rocks, on the road to Methymne. There is a Larisa in
Attica ; and a village of this name at the distance of 30 stadia
from Tralleis, situated above the city, on the road to the plain
of the Cayster, passing by Mesogis towards the temple of
Mater Isodroma. This Larisa has a similar position, and
possesses similar advantages to those of Larisa Cremaste ; for
it has abundance of water and vineyards. Perhaps Jupiter
had the appellation of Larisseus from this place. There is
also on the left side of the Pontus (Euxine) a village called
Larisa, near the extremities of Mount Haemus, between Nau-
lochus [and Odessus].^

Oloosson, called the White, from its chalky soil, Elone, and
Gonnus are Perrhasbic cities. The name of Elone was changed
to that of Leimone. It is now in ruins. Both lie at the foot
of Olympus, not very far from the river Eurotas, which the
poet calls Titaresius.

20. The poet speaks both of this river and of the Per-
rhgebi in the subsequent verses, when he says,

" Gimeus brought from Cyphus two and twenty vessels. His followers
were Enienes and Perasbi, firm in batlle. They dwelt near the wintry
Dodona, and tilled the fields abont the lovely Titaresius." ^

He mentions therefore these places as belonging to the Per-
rhaebi, which comprised a part of the Hestiaeotis.^ They were
in part Perrhsebic towns, which were subject to Polypoetes.
He assigned them however to the Lapithse, because these
people and the Perrhaebi lived intermixed together, and the
Lapithse occupied the plains. The country, which belonged
to the Perrhasbi, was, for the most part, subject to the La-
pithse, but the Perrhaebi possessed the more mountainous
tracts towards Olympus and Tempe, such as Cyphus, Dodone,
and the country about the river Titaresius. This river rises

^ Groskurd suggests the insertion here of Messembria or Odessus.
Kramer is inclined to adopt the latter.
* 11. ii. 748. 3 Or Pelasgiotis. Groskurd.

VOL. II. L

146 STRABO. Casaub. 441-

in the mountain Titarius, which is part of Olympus. It flows
into the plain near Tempe belonging to Perrhaebia, and some-
where there enters the Peneius.

The water of the Peneius is clear, that of the Titaresius
is unctuous ; a property arising from some matter, which
prevents the streams mingling with each other,

" but runs over the surface like oil." *

Because the Perrhaebi and Lapithae lived intermingled to-
gether, Simonides calls all those people Pelasgiotaj, who oc-
cupy the eastern parts about Gyrton and the mouths of the
Peneius, Ossa, Pelion, and the country about Demetrias, and
the places in the plain, Larisa, Crannon, Scotussa, Mopsium,
Atrax, and the parts near the lakes Nessonis and Boebeis.
The poet mentions a few only of these places, either because
they were not inhabited at all, or badly inhabited on account
of the inundations which had happened at various times.
For the poet does not mention even the lake Nessonis, but the
Boebeis only, which is much smaller, for its water remained
constant, and this alone remains, while the former probably
was at one time filled irregularly to excess, and at another
contained no water.

We have mentioned Scotussa in our accounts of Dodona,
and of the oracle, in Thessaly, when' we observed that it was
near Scotussa. Near Scotussa is a tract called Cynoscephalai.
It was here that the Romans with their allies the ^tolians, and
their general Titus Quintius, defeated in a great battle Philip,
son of Demetrius, king of Macedon.

21. Something of the same kind has happened in the terri-
tory of Magnetis. For Homer having enumerated many
places of this country, calls none of them Magnetes, but those
only whom he indicates in terms obscure, and not easily un-
derstood ;

" They who dwelt about Peneius and Pelion with waving woods."'

Now about the Peneius and Pelion dwell those (already
mentioned by Homer) who occupied Gyrton, and Ormenium,
and many other nations. At a still greater distance from
Pelion, according to later writers, were Magnetes, begin-
ning from the people, that were subject to Eumelus. These

» II. ii. 754 « II. ii. 756.

B. IX. c. V. § 22. THESSALY. 147

writers, on account of the continual removals from one settle-
ment to another, alterations in the forms of government, and
intermixture of races, seem to confound both names and na-
tions, which sometimes perplexes persons in these times, as is
first to be observed in the instances of Crannon and Gyrton.

Formerly thej called the Gyrtonians Phlegyae, from
Phlegyas, the brother of Ixion ; and the Crannonii, Ephyri, so
that there is a doubt, when the poet says,

" These two from Thrace appeared with breastplates armed against
Ephyri, or haughty Phlegyae,"^

what people he meant.

22. The same is the case with the Perrhasbi and ^nianes,
for Homer joins them together, as if they dwelt near each
other ; and it is said by later writers, that, for a long period,
the settlement of the JEnianes was in the Dotian plain. Now
this plain is near Perrhsebia, which we have just mentioned,
Ossa, and the lake Boebeis : it is situated about the middle of
Thessaly,but enclosed by itself within hills. Hesiod speaks of
it in this manner ;

" Or, as a pure virgin, who dwells on the sacred heights of the Twin hills,
conaes to the Dotian plain, in front of Amyrus, abounding with vines, to
bathe her feet in the lake Boebias."

The greater part of the jEnianes were expelled by the Lapithae,
and took refuge in QCta, where they established their power,
having deprived the Dorians and the Malienses of some por-
tions of country, extending as far as Heracleia and Echinus.
Some of them however remained about Cyphus, a Perrhasbic
mountain, where is a settlement of the same name. As to the
Perrhasbi, some of them collected about the western parts of
Olympus and settled there, on the borders of the Macedonians.
But a large body took shelter among the mountains near
Athamania, and Pindus. But at present few, if any, traces
of them are to be found.

The Magnetes, who are mentioned last in the Thessalian
catalogue of the poet, must be understood to be those situated
within Tempe, extending from the Peneius and Ossa to Pe-
lion, and bordering upon the Pieriotae in Macedonia, who oc-
cupy the country on the other side the Peneius as far as
the sea.

Homolium, or Homole, (for both words are in use,) must

» II. xiii. 301.
L 2

148 STRABO. Casaub. 443

be assigned to the Magnetes. I have said in the description
of Macedonia, that Homolium is near Ossa at the beginning
of the course which the Peneius takes through Tempe.

If we are to extend their possessions as far as the sea-coast,
which is very near Homolium, there is reason for assigning to
them Rhizus, and Erymnae, which lies on the sea-coast in the
tract subject to Philoctetes and Eumelus. Let this however
remain unsettled. For the order in which the places as lar as
the Peneius follow one another, is not clearly expressed, and
as the places are not of any note, we need not consider that
uncertainty as very important. The coast of Sepias, however,
is mentioned by tragic writers, and was chaunted in songs on
account of the destruction of the Persian fleet. It consists of
a chain of rocks.

Between Sepias and Casthanaea, a village situated below
Pelion, is the sea-shore, where the fleet of Xerxes was lying,
when an east wind began to blow violently ; some of the ves-
sels were forced on shore, and immediately went to pieces ;
others were driven on Hipnus, a rocky spot near Pelion,
others were lost at Meliboea, others at Casthanaea.

The whole of the coasting voyage along Pelion, to the ex-
tent of about 80 stadia, is among rocks. That along Ossa is
of the same kind and to the same extent.

Between them is a bay of more than 200 stadia in extent,
upon which is situated Meliboea.

The whole voyage from Demetrias, including the winding
of the bays, to the Peneius is more than 1000 stadia, from the
Spercheius 800 stadia more, and from the Euripus 2350
stadia.

Hieronymus assigns a circuit of 3000 stadia to the plain
country in Thessaly and Magnesia, and says, that it was in-
habited by Pelasgi, but that these people were driven into
Italy by Lapithse, and that the present Pelasgic plain is that
in which are situated Larisa, Gyrton, Pherse, Mopsium, Boe-
beis, Ossa, Homole, Pelion, and Magnetis. Mopsium has not
its name from Mopsus, the son of Manto the daughter of
Teiresias, but from Mopsus, one of the Lapithas, who sailed
with the Argonauts. Mopsopus, from whom Attica is called
Mopsopia, is a different person.

23. This then is the account of the several parts of Thes-
saly.

B. IX. c. V. § 23. THESSALY. 149

In general we say, that it was formerly called Pyrrhaea,
from Pyrrha, the wife of Deucalion ; Hasmonia, from Haemon ;
and Thettalia, from Thettalus, the son of Haemon. But some
writers, after dividing it into two portions, say, that Deucalion
obtained by lot the southern part, and called it Pandora, from
his mother ; that the other fell to the share of Haemon, from
whom it was called Haemonia ; that the name of one part was
changed to Hellas, from Hellen, the son of Deucalion, and of
the other to Thettalia, from Thettalus, the son of Haemon.
But, according to some writers, it was the descendants of An-
tiphus and Pheidippus, sons of Thettalus, descended from
Hercules, who invaded the country from Ephyra in Thes-
protia, and called it after the name of Thettalus their pro-
genitor. It has been already said that once it had the name
of Nessonis, as well as the lake, from Nesson, the son of
Thettalus.

BOOK X.
GREECE.

SUMMARY.

The Tenth Book contains JEtolia and the neighhouring islands ; also the
whole of Crete, on which the author dwells some time in narrating the
institutions of the islanders and of the Curetes. He describes at length
the origin of the Tdaean Dactyli in Crete, their customs and religious
rites. Strabo mentions the connexion of his own family with Crete, The
Book contains an account of the numerous islands about Crete, including
the Sporades and some of the Cyclades.

CHAPTER I.

1. Since Euboea^ stretches along the whole of this coast
from Sunium to Thessalj, except the extremity on each side,^
it may be convenient to connect the description of this island
with that of Thessaly. We shall then pass on to ^tolia and
Acarnania, parts of Europe of which it remains to give an
account.

2. The island is oblong, and extends nearly 1200 stadia
from Cenaeum^ to Geraestus.'* Its greatest breadth is about
150 stadia, but it is irregular.^

* In the middle ages Euboea was called Egripo, a corruption of Euri-
pus, the name of the town built upon the ruins of Chalcis. The Veneti-
ans, who obtained possession of the island upon the dismemberment of the
Byzantine empire by the Latins, called it Negropont, probably a corrup-
tion of Egripo and Ponte, a bridge. Smith.

2 This expression is obscure ; probably it may mean that Euboea is
not equal in length to the coast comprehended between Sunium and the
southern limits of Thessaly.

^ C. Lithada. The mountain Lithada above the cape, rises to the
height of 2837 feet above the sea.

* C.Mantelo.

* The real length of the island from N. to S. is about 90 miles, its ex-
treme breadth is 30 miles, but in one part it is not more than 4 miles
across. See Smith art. Euboea.

B. X. c. I. § 3. NEGROPONT. 151

Cenagum is opposite to Thermopjlae, and in a small degree
to the parts beyond Thermopylas : Geraestus ^ and Petalia ^ are
opposite to Sunium.

Euboea then fronts ^ Attica, Boeotia, Locris, and the Mali-
enses. From its narrowness, and its length, which we have
mentioned, it was called by the ancients Macris.'*

It approaches nearest to the continent at Chalcis. It pro-
jects with a convex bend towards the places in Boeotia near
Aulis, and forms the Euripus,^ of which we have before
spoken at length. We have also mentioned nearly all the
places on either side of the Euripus, opposite to each other
across the strait, both on the continent and on the island. If
anything is omitted we shall now give a further explanation.

And first, the parts lying between Aulis (Chalcis ?) and
the places about Geraestus are called the Hollows of Euboea,
for the sea-coast swells into bays, and, as it approaches Chal-
cis, juts out again towards the continent.

3. The island had the name not of Macris only, but of
Abantis also. The poet in speaking of Euboea never calls the
inhabitants from the name of the island, Euboeans, but always
Abantes ;

"they who possessed Euboea, the resolute Abantes;"®
" in his train Abantes were following."

Aristotle says that Thracians, taking their departure from
Aba, the Phocian city, settled with the other inhabitants in
the island, and gave the name of Abantes to those who al-
ready occupied it ; other writers say that they had their name
from a hero,*^ as that of Euboea was derived from a heroine.^
But perhaps as a certain cave on the sea-coast fronting the

' Cape Mantelo.

^ Strabo is the only ancient author who describes a place of this name
as existing in Euboea. Kiepert and the Austrian map agree in giving the
name Petaliae, which may here be meant, to the Spill islands.

^ avTiTTopOnog.

* Euboea has various names. Formerly (says Pliny, h. iv. c. 12) it
was called Chalcedontis or Macris, according to Dionysius and Ephorus ;
Macra, according to Aristides ; Chalcis, from brass being there first dis-
covered, according to Callidemus; Abantias, according to Menaechmus ;
and Asopis by the poets in general.

' The narrow channel between the island and the mainland.

« II. ii. 536, 542.

^ From Abas, great grandson of Erectheus.

* From Euboea, daughter of the river Asopus and mistress of Neptune .

152 STRABO. Casaub. 445.

^gean Sea is called Boos-Aule, (or the Cow's Stall,) where
lo is said to have brought forth Epaphus, so the island may
have had the name Euboja^ on this account.

It was also called Oche, which is the name of one of the
largest mountains^ there.

It had the name of Ellopia, from Ellops, the son of Ion ;
according to others, he was the brother of -^clus, and Co-
thus, who is said to have founded Ellopia,^ a small place
situated in the district called Oria of the Histi^eotis, near the
mountain Telethrius.^ He also possessed Histiaea, Perias,
Cerinthus, ^depsus,^ and Orobioe, where was an oracle very
free from deception. There also was an oracle of Apollo
Selinuntius.

The Ellopians, after the battle of Leuctra, were compelled
by the tyrant Philistides to remove to the city Histiasa, and
augmented the number of its inhabitants. Demosthenes^
says that Philistides was appointed by Philip tyrant of the
Oreitae also, for afterwards tlie Histiasans had that name, and
the city, instead of Histisea, was called Oreus. According to
some writers, Histiaea was colonized by Athenians from the
demus of the Histiaeeis, as Eretria was from the demus of the
Eretrieis. But Theopompus says, that when Pericles had re-
duced Euboea, the Histiaeans agreed to remove into Mace-
donia, and that two thousand Athenians, who formerly com-
posed the demus of the Histiaeans, came, and founded Oreus.^

4. It is situated below Mount Telethrius, at a place called
Drymus, near the river Callas, on a lofty rock;^ whence
perhaps because the Ellopians, the former inhabitants, were a
mountain tribe,^ the city had the name of Oreus. Orion, who
was brought up there, seems to have had his name from the
place. But according to some writers, the Oreitae, who had a

' From ev, well, and (3ovq, a cow. The ancient coins of the island
bear the head of an ox.

^ Mount St. EUas, 4748 feet above the level of the sea. Bochart de-
rives the name from an eastern word signifying " narrow."

^ At the base of Ploko Vuno.

* Mount Galzades, celebrated for producing medicinal plants. Theo-
phrastus, Hist. Plant, b. ix. c. 15 and 20.

* Dipso, according to Kiepert.
^ Philipp. iii.

^ Not the town named Histiaea-Oreus, which was on the sea-coast.

* Livy, b. xxxi. c. 46. * did to opeiovg elvai.

B. X. c. I. ^ 5—7. NEGROPONT. 1^^3

city of their own, being attacked by the Ellopians, migrated,
and settled with the Histiaeans, and although it was a single
city it had both appellations, as Lacedaemon and Sparta were
the same city. We have said, that the Histiaeotis in Thes-
saly had its name from the people who were carried away
from this country by the Perrhaebi.

5. As EUopia induced us to commence our description
with Histiaea and Oreus, we shall proceed with the places con-
tinuous with these.

The promontory Cenaeum is near Oreus, and on the pro-
montory is situated Dium,^ and Athenae Diades, a town
founded by Athenians, and overlooks the passage across the
strait to Cynus. Canag in -.^olia received colonists from
Dium. These places are situated near Histiaea, and besides
these Cerinthus, a small city, close to the sea. Near it is a
river Budorus, of the same name as the mountain in Salamis
on the side of Attica,

6. Carystus^ lies at the foot of the mountain Oche, and
near it are Styra ^ and Marmarium,'* where is a quarry, from
which are obtained the Carystian columns. It has a temple
of Apollo Marmarinus, where there is a passage across to
Halae-Araphenides. At Carystus there is found in the earth
a stone,^ which is combed like wool, and woven, so that nap-
kins are made of this substance, which, when soiled, are
thrown into the fire, and cleaned, as in the washing of linen.^
These places are said to be inhabited by colonists from the
Tetrapolis of Marathon, and by Steirieis. Styra was de-
stroyed in the Mahac (Lamiac ?) war by Phaedrus, the general
of the Athenians. But the Eretrians are in possession of the
territory. There is also a Carystus in Laconia, a place be-
longing to -^gys, towards Arcadia ; from whence comes the
Carystian wine, spoken of by Alcman.

7. Geraestus'^ is not mentioned by Homer in the Catalogue
of the Ships ; it is however mentioned by him elsewhere ;

' Kiepert accordingly places Dium near the modern Jaitra, but the
Austrian map places it to the N, E. of Ploko Vuno.

^ Castel Rosso. The landing-place of the Persian expedition under
Datis and Artaphernes, b. c. 490. Herod, b. vi. c. 99.

3 Sturae.

* The ruins are indicated as existing opposite the Spili islands.

^ XiQoQ cpvtTai. '' ry tud/ Xivwv TrXvati. ^ C. Mantelo.

154 STRABO. Casaub. 447.

" The vessels came to Gersestus by night ; " ^
which shows, that the place being near Sunium lies conveni-
ently for persons who cross from Asia to Attica. It has a
temple of Neptune the most remarkable of any in that
quarter, and a considerable number of inhabitants.

8. Next to Geraestus is Eretria, which, after Chalcis, is the
largest city in Euboea. Next follows Chalcis, the capital as
it were of the island, situated immediately on the Euripus.
Both these cities are said to have been founded by Athenians
before the Trojan war ; [but it is also said that] after the
Trojan war, -^clus and Cothus took their departure from
Athens ; the former to found Eretria, and Cothus, Chalcis.
A body of Cohans who belonged to the expedition of Pen-
thilus remained in the island. Anciently, even Arabians ^
settled there, who came over with Cadmus.

These cities, Eretria and Chalcis, when their population
was greatly augmented, sent out considerable colonies to Ma-
cedonia, for Eretria founded cities about Pallene and Mount
Athos ; Chalcis founded some near Olynthus, which Philip
destroyed. There are also many settlements in Italy and
Sicily, founded by Chalcidians. These colonies were sent
out, according to Aristotle,^ when the government of the
Hippobatae, (or Knights,) as it is called, was established ; it
was an aristocratical government, the heads of which held
their office by virtue of the amount of their property. At
the time that Alexander passed over into Asia, they enlarged .
the compass of the walls of their city, including within them
Canethus,'* and the Euripus, and erected towers upon the
bridge, a wall, and gates.

9. Above the city of the Chalcidians is the plain called
Lelantum, in which are hot springs, adapted to the cure of
diseases, and which were used by Cornelius Sylla, the Roman
general. There was also an extraordinary mine which pro-
duced both copper and iron ; such, writers say, is not to be
found elsewhere. At present, however, both are exhausted.

1 Od. iii. 177.

^ As this statement is unsupported by any other authority, Meineke
suggests that the word Arabians ("ApaJSeg oi) is an error for Aradii
('ApddLoi).

^ Repub. b. iv. c. 3.

* According to the Scholiast in Apollon. Rhod. Argon, b. i. v. 77,
Canethus was a mountain on the Boeotian side of the Euripus.

B. X. c. I. § 10. NEGROPONT. 155

The whole of Euboea is subject to earthquakes, especially
the part near the strait. It is also exposed to violent subter-
raneous blasts, like Boeotia, and other places of which I have
before spoken at length.^ The city of the same name as the
island is said to have been swallowed up by an earthquake.^
It is mentioned by -^schylus in his tragedy of Glaucus
Pontius ;

" Eubois near the bending shore of Jupiter Ceneeus, close to the tomb of
the wretched Lichas."

There is also in ^tolia a town of the name of Chalcis,

" Chalcis on the sea-coast, and the rocky Calydon," '

and another in the present Eleian territory ;

" they passed along Cruni, and the rocky Chalcis," *

speaking of Telemachus and his companions, when they left
Nestor to return to their own country.

10. Some say, that the Eretrians were a colony from Ma-
cistus in Triphylia, under the conduct of Eretrieus ; others,
that they came from Eretria, in Attica, where now a market
is held. There is an Eretria also near Pharsalus. In
the Eretrian district there was a city, Tamynae, sacred to
Apollo. The temple (which was near the strait) is said to
have been built by Admetus, whom the god, according to
report, served a year^ for hire.

Eretria,^ formerly, had the names of Melaneis and Arotria.
The village Amarynthus, at the distance of 7 stadia from the
walls, belongs to it.

The Persians razed the ancient city, having enclosed with
multitudes the inhabitants, according to the expression of
Herodotus,*^ in a net, by spreading the Barbarians around the
walls. The foundations are still shown, and the place is
called ancient Eretria. The present city is built near it.

The power which the Eretrians once possessed, is evinced
by a pillar which was placed in the temple of Diana Ama-
rynthia. There is an inscription on it to this elFect, that their
processions upon their public festivals consisted of three
thousand heavy-armed soldiers, six hundred horsemen, and

» B. i. c. iii. § 16. « B. ix. c. ii. § 13. ^ jj [[ 540.

* Od, XV. 295. * iviavTov for avrov. Meineke.

« Near Palseo-castro. "* Herod, b. iii. c. 149, and b. vi. c. 101.

156 STRABO. Casaub. 448.

sixty chariots. They were masters, besides other islands, of
Andros, Tenos, and Ceos. They received colonists from
Elis, whence their frequent use of the letter R, (p,)* not only
at the end, but in the middle of words, which exposed them
to the raillery of comic writers.

OEchalia,^ a village, the remains of a city destroyed by
Hercules, belongs to the district of Eretria. It has the same
name as that in Trachinia, as that near Tricca,^ as that in
Arcadia, (which later writers call Andania,) and as that in
-^tolia near the Eurytanes.

11. At present Chalcis'* is allowed, without dispute, to hold
the first rankj and is called the capital of the Euboeans.
Eretria holds the second place. Even in former times these
cities had great influence both in war and peace, so that
they afforded to philosophers an agreeable and tranquil re-
treat. A proof of this is the establishment at Eretria of the
school of Eretrian philosophers, disciples of Menedemus ; and
at an earlier period the residence of Aristotle^ at Chalcis,
where he also died.

12. These cities generally lived in harmony with each
other, and when a dispute arose between them respecting
Lelantum, they did not even then suspend all intercourse so as
to act in war entirely without regard to each other, but they
agreed upon certain conditions, on which the war was to be
conducted. This appears by a column standing in the Ama-
rynthium, which interdicts the use of missiles. [For with
respect to warlike usages and armour, there neither is nor
was any common usage; for some nations employ soldiers
who use missile weapons, such as bows, slings, and javelins ;
others employ men who engage in close fight, and use a
sword, or charge with a spear.^ For there are two methods
of using the spear ; one is to retain it in the hand ; the other,
to hurl it like a dart; the pike' answers both purposes, for it
is used in close encounter and is hurled to a distance. The
sarissa and the hyssus are similarly made use of.] ^

* A common practice of the Dorians.

*■' B. viii. c. iii. § 6. 'In Thessaly.

* Negropont. It was one of the three cities which Philip of Macedon
called the chains of Greece. Brass {xaXKog) was said to have been first
found there.

* He retired there b. c. 322. ^ dopv. ' Kovrbg.

* ri (rdpiaoa Kai 6 vaabg. Probably an interpolation. Groskurd.

B. X. c. I. § 13-15. NEGROPONT. 157

13. The Euboeans excelled in standing^ figlit, which was
also called close fight,^ and fight hand to hand.^ They used
spears extended at length according to the words of the poet ;

"warriors eager to break through breastplates with extended ashen
spears." *

The missile weapons were perhaps of different kinds, as, pro-
bably, was the ashen spear of Pelion, which, as the poet says,

*' Achilles alone knew how to hurl."'
When the poet says,
" I strike farther with a spear than any other person with an arrow," *

he means with a missile spear. They, too, who engage in
single combat, are first introduced as using missile spears, and
then having recourse to swords. But they who engage in
single combat do not use the sword only, but a spear also held
in the hand, as the poet describes it,

" he wounded him with a polished spear, pointed with brass, and un-
braced his limbs." ^

He represents the Euboeans as fighting in this manner ; but
he describes the Locrian mode as contrary to this ;

" It was not their practice to engage in close fight, but they followed him
to Ilium with their bows, clothed in the pliant fleece of the sheep."*

An answer of an oracle is commonly repeated, which was re-
turned to the ^gienses ;

*• a Thessalian horse, a Lacedaemonian woman, and the men who drink
the water of the sacred Arethusa,"

meaning the Chalcideans as superior to all other people, for
Arethusa belongs to them.

14. At present the rivers of Euboea are the Cereus and
Neleus. The cattle which drink of the water of the former
become white, and those that drink of the water of the latter
become black. We have said that a similar effect is produced
by the water of the Crathis.^

15. As some of the Euboeans, on their return from Troy,
were driven out of their course among the Illyrians ; pursued
their journey homewards through Macedonia, and stopped in
the neighbourhood of Edessa ; having assisted the people in a
war, who had received them hospitably ; they founded a city,

• fiax,T]v TTjv &TaSiav. ' (rvoTaSrjv. ' tK ^etpoc;.

* II. ii. 543. 5 II. xix. 389. ^ Qd. viii. 229.

' 11. IV. 469. 8 II. xiii. 713, 716. » B. vi. c i. § 13.

158 STRABO. Casaub. 450.

Euboea. There was a Euboea in Sicily, founded by the
Chalcideans, who were settled there. It was destroyed by
Gelon, and became a strong-hold of the Syracusans. In Cor-
cyra also, and at Lemnus, there was a place called Euboea, and
a hill of this name in the Argive territory.

16. We have said, that ^tolians, Acarnanians, and Atha-
manes are situated to the west of the Thessalians and CEtag-
ans, if indeed we must call the Athamanes,^ Greeks. It re-
mains, in order that we may complete the description of
Greece, to give some account of these people, of the islands
which lie nearest to Greece, arid are inhabited by Greeks,
which we have not yet mentioned.

CHAPTER 11.

1. -^TOLiANS and Acarnanians border on one another,
having between them the river Achelous,^ which flows from
the north, and from Pindus towards the south, through the
country of the Agraei, an JEtolian tribe, and of the Amphi-
lochians.

Acarnanians occupy the western side of the river as far as
the Ambracian Gulf,^ opposite to the Amphilochians, and the
temple of Apollo Actius. ^tolians occupy the part towards
the east as far as the Locri Ozolae, Parnassus, and the CEtseans.

Amphilochians are situated above the Acarnanians in the
interior towards the north; above the Amphilochians are
situated Dolopes, and Mount Pindus ; above the ^tolians
are Perrhasbi, Athamanes, and a body of the ^nianes who
occupy (Eta.

The southern side, as well the Acarnanian as the ^tolian,
is washed by the sea, forming the Corinthian Gulf, into which
the Achelous empties itself. This river (at its mouth) is the
boundary of the -.^tolian and the Acarnanian coast. The
Achelous was formerly called Thoas. There is a river of
this name near Dyme,^ as we have said, and another near
Lamia.^ We have also said,^ that the mouth qf this river is

' B. viii. c. vii. § 1. * The Aspropotamo. ^ G. of Arta.

* B. viii. c. iii. § 11. ^ B. ix. c. v. § 10. « B. viii. c. ii. § 3.

B. X. c. II. § 2, 3. ^TOLIA. ACARNANIA. 159

considered by some writers as the commencement of the Cor-
inthian Gulf.

2. The cities of the Acarnanians are, Anactorium, situated
upon a peninsula^ near Actium, and a mart of Nicopolis,
which has been built in our time ; Stratus,^ to which vessels
sail up the Achelous, a distance of more than 200 stadia ; and
CEniadas^ is also on the banks of the river. The ancient
city is not inhabited, and lies at an equal distance from the
sea and from Stratus. The present city is at the distance of
70 stadia above the mouth of the river.

There are also other cities, Palaerus,* Alyzia,^ Leucas,^ the
Amphilochian Argos,*^ and Ambracia:^ most of these, if not
all, are dependent upon Nicopolis.

Stratus lies half-way between Alyzia and Anactorium.^

3. To the ^tolians belong both Calydon ^^ and Pleuron,
which at present are in a reduced condition, but, anciently,
these settlements were an ornament to Greece.

^tolia was divided into two portions, one called the
Old, the other the Epictetus (the Acquired). The Old com-
prised the sea-coast from the Achelous as far as Calydon, ex-
tending far into the inland parts, which are fertile, and consist
of plains. Here are situated Stratus and Trichonium, which
has an excellent soil. The Epictetus, that reaches close to
the Locri in the direction of Naupactus*^ and Eupaliura,^^

^ The promontory bears the name C. Madonna, and the ruins of Anac-
torium are pointed out as existing at the bottom of the small bay of Pre-
vesa. The modern town, Azio, which is not the ancient Actium, is near
these ruins.

^ Near Lepenu.

' Correction by Groskurd. Trigardon is given in the Austrian map as
the ancient site of CEniadaB, but this position does not agree with the text.

* Porto-fico according to D'Anville.

^ Kandili, opposite the island Kalamo.

6 Santa Maura. ^ Neochori.

* Arta, but the Austrian map gives Rogus as the site.

^ This is an error either of the author or in the text. Groskurd pro-
poses to read Antirrhium (Castel Rumeli) in place of Anactorium.
Kramer proposes to follow Tzschucke, and to exchange the positions of
the words Stratus and Alyzia in the text.

"* There has been some dispute respecting the site of Calydon. Leake
supposes the ruins which he discovered at Kurtaga, or Kortaga, to the
west of the Evenus, (Fidari,) to be those of Calydon.

" Lepanto.

" Leake supposes it to have stood in the plain of Marathia, opposite the
island Trissonia.

160 STRABO. Casatjb. 451.

is a rugged and sterile tract, extending as far as QEtasa, to
the territory of the Athamanes, and tlie mountains and na-
tions following next in order, and which lie around towards
the north.

4. There is in ^tolia a very large mountain, the Corax,*
which is contiguous to CEta.. Among the other mountains,
more in the middle of the country, is the Aracynthus,^ near
which the founders built the modern Pleuron, having aban-
doned the ancient city situated near Calydon, which was in
a fertile plain country, when Demetrius, surnamed ^tolicus,
laid waste the district.

Above Molycreia^ are Taphiassus^ and Chalcis,^ moun-
tains of considerable height, on which are situated the small
cities, Macynia and Chalcis, (having the same name as the
mountain,) or, as it is also called, Hypochalcis. Mount Curium
is near the ancient Pleuron, from which some supposed the
Pleuronii had the appellation of Curetes.

5. The river Evenus rises in the country of the Bomianses,
a nation situated among the Ophienses, and an jEtolian tribe
like the Eurytanes, Agraei, Curetes, and others. It does not
flow, at its commencement, through the territory of the Cu-
retes, which is the same as Pleuronia, but through the coun-
try more towards the east along Chalcis and Calydon ; it then
makes a bend backwards to the plains of the ancient Pleuron,
and having changed its course to the west, turns again to the
south, where it empties itself. It was formerly called Ly-
cormas. There Nessus, who had the post of ferryman, is said
to have been killed by Hercules for having attempted to force
Deianeira while he was conveying her across the river.

6. The poet calls Olenus and Pylene ^tolian cities, the
former of which, of the same name as the Achaean city, was
razed by the ^olians. It is near the new city Pleuron.
The Acarnanians disputed the possession of the territory.
They transferred Pylene to a higher situation, and changed
its name to Proschium. Hellanicus was not at all acquainted
with the history of these cities, but speaks of them as still ex-
isting in their ancient condition, but Macynia and Molycria,
which were built subsequent to the return of the Heracleidae,

' M. Coraca. ^ M. Zigos. ' Xerolimne.

* Kaki-scala. * Varassova.

B. X. c. II. § 7, 8. LEUCAS. 161

he enumerates among ancient cities, and shows the greatest
carelessness in almost every part of his work.

7. This, then, is the general account of the country of the
Acarnanians and ^tolians. We must annex to this some
description of the sea-coast and of the islands lying in front
of it.

If we begin from the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf, the
first place we meet with in Acarnania is Actium. The temple
of Apollo Actius has the same name as the promontory, which
forms the entrance of the Gulf, and has a harbour on the
outside.

At the distance of 40 stadia from the temple is Anacto-
rium, situated on the Gulf; and at the distance of 240 stadia
is Leucas.^

8. This was, anciently, a peninsula belonging to the terri-
tory of the Acarnanians. The poet calls it the coast of
Epirus, meaning by Epirus the country on the other side of
Ithaca,^ and Cephallenia,^ which country is Acarnania ; so
that by the words of the poet,

" the coast of Epirus,"
we must understand the coast of Acarnania.

To Leucas also belonged Neritus, which Laertes said he
took —

" as when I was chief of the Cephallenians, and took Nericus, a well-
built city, on the coast of Epirus,"*

and the cities which he mentions in the Catalogue,

" and they who inhabited Crocyleia, and the rugged jEgilips."*

But the Corinthians who were despatched by Cypselus and
Gorgus, obtained possession of this coast, and advanced as far
as the Ambracian Gulf. Ambracia and Anactorium were
both founded. They cut through the isthmus of the peninsula,
converted Leucas into an island, transferred Neritus to the
spot, which was once an isthmus, but is now a channel con-
nected with the land by a bridge, and changed the name to
Leucas from Leucatas, as I suppose, which is a white rock,
projecting from Leucas into the sea towards Cephallenia, so
that it might take its name from this circumstance.

* Santa Maura. ' Theaki. ^ Cephalonia.

* Od. xxiv. 376. » II. ii. 633.

VOL. II. M

162 STKABO. Casaub. 452.

9. It has upon it the temple of Apollo Leucatas, and the
Leap, which, it was thought, was a termination of love.

"Here Sappho first 'tis said," (according to Menander,) "in pursuit of
the haughty Phaon, and urged on by maddening desire, threw herself^
from the aerial rock, imploring Thee, Lord, and King."

Menander then says that Sappho was the first who took the
leap, but persons better acquainted with ancient accounts as-
sert that it was Cephalus, who was in love with Pterelas, the
son of Deioneus.2 It was also a custom of the country among
the Leucadians at the annual sacrifice performed in honour of
Apollo, to precipitate from the rock one of the condemned
criminals, with a view to avert evil. Various kinds of wings
were attached to him, and even birds were suspended from his
body, to lighten by their fluttering the fall of the leap. Be-
low many persons were stationed around in small fishing boats
to receive, and to preserve his life, if possible, and to carry
him beyond the boundaries of the country. The author of
the Alcmaeonis says that Icarius, the father of Penelope, had
two sons, Alyzeus, and Leucadius, who reigned after their
father in Acarnania, whence Ephorus thinks that the cities
were called after their names.

10. At present those are called Cephallenians who inhabit
Cephallenia. But Homer calls all those under the command
of Ulysses by this name, among whom are the Acarnanians ;
for when he says,

" Ulysses led the Cephallenians, those who possessed Ithaca, and Neri-

tum, waving with woods,"*

(the remarkable mountain in this island ; so also,

"they who came from Dulichium, and the sacred Echinades,"*
for Dulichium itself was one of the Echinades ; and again,

" Buprasium and Elis," ^
when Buprasium is situated in Elis ; and so,

" they who inhabited Euboea, Chalcis, and Eretria,"^
when the latter places are in Euboea ; so again,
" Trojans, Lycians, and Dardanians," '

' I follow the proposed reading, llXiJa for aXXd.

^ Du Theil says, Strabo should have said " a daughter of Pterelas who
was in love with Cephalus." See below, § 14.

-' II. ii. 631. * II. ii. 625. ' II. ii. 615.

6 II. ii. 536. ' II. viii. 173.

B. X. c. II. § 10. CEPHALLENIA. 163

and these also were Trojans): but after mentioning Neritum,

he says,

" and they who inhabited Crocyleia and rocky ^gilips, Zacynthus, Sa-
mos, Epirus, and the country opposite to these islands ;" *

he means by Epirus the country opposite to the islands, in-
tending to include together with Leucas the rest of Acarnania,
of which he says,

" twelve herds, and as many flocks of sheep in Epirus," ^

because the district of Epirus (the Epirotis) extended an-
ciently perhaps as far as this place, and was designated by the
common name Epirus.

The present Cephallenia he calls Samos, as when he says,

" in the strait between Ithaca and the hilly Samos," '
he makes a distinction between places of the same name by an
epithet, assigning the name not to the city, but to the island.
For the island contains four cities, one of which, called Samos,
or Same, for it had either appellation, bore the same name as
the island. But when the poet says,

" all the chiefs of the islands, Dulichium, Same, and the woody Zacyn-
thus,""

he is evidently enumerating the islands, and cdls that Same
which he had before called Samos.

But Apollodorus at one time says that the ambiguity is re-
moved by the epithet, which the poet uses, when he says,

" and hilly Samos,"
meaning the island ; and at another time he pretends that we
ought to write

" Dulichium, and Samos," -'

and not

" Same,"

and evidently supposes that the city is called by either name,
Samos or Same, but the island by that of Samos only. That
the city is called Same is evident from the enumeration of
the suitors from each city, where the poet says,
" there are four and twenty from Same," *
and from what is said about Ctimene,

» 11. ii. 633. 2 od. xiv. 100. ' Od. iv. 671.

* Od. i. 24G. » Od. xrl 249.

M 2

164 STRABO. Casaub. 454.

" they afterwards gave her in marriage at Same." ^
There is reason in this. For the poet does not express
himself distinctly either about Cephallenia, or Ithaca, or the
other neighbouring places, so that both historians and com-
mentators differ from one another.

11. For instance, with respect to Ithaca, when the poet
says,
*' and they who possessed Ithaca, and Neritum with its waving woods,"^

he denotes by the epithet, that he means Neritum the moun-
tain. In other passages he expressly mentions the mountain ;

" I dwell at Ithaca, turned to the western sun ; where is a mountain,
Neritum, seen from afar with its waving woods ; " ^

but whether he means the city, or the island, is not clear, at
least from this verse ;

" they who possessed Ithaca, and Neritum."
Any one would understand these words in their proper sense
to mean the city, as we speak of Athens, Lycabettus, Rhodes,
Atabyris, Lacedaemon, and Taygetus, but in a poetical sense
the contrary is implied.

In the verses,
" I dwell at Ithaca, turned to the western sun, in which is a mountain
Neritum,"

the meaning is plain, because the mountain is on the island
and not in the city ; and when he says,

" we came from Ithaca situated under Neium,"*
it is uncertain whether he means that Neium was the same as
Neritum, or whether it is another, either mountain or place.
[He, who writes Nericum for Neritum, or the reverse, is
quite mistaken. For the poet describes the former as " waving
with woods ;" the other as a " well-built city ;" one in Ithaca,
the other on the sea-beach of Epirus.]^

12. But this line seems to imply some contradiction ;
" it lies in the sea both low, and very high,"^
for x^ajjiaXri is low, and depressed, but Tvawireprarr) expresses
great height, as he describes it in other passages, calling it
Cranae, (or rugged,) and the road leading from the har-
bour, as,

» Od. XV. 366. 2 II, ii. 632. ' Od. ix. 21. " Od. iii. 81.

* Probably interpolated. Kramer. « Od. ix. 25.

B. X. c. II. § 12. ITHACA. 165

" a rocky way through a woody spot," *
and again,

" for there is not any island in the sea exposed to the western sun,' and
with good pastures, least of all Ithaca." '

The expression does imply contradictions, which admit how-
ever of some explanation. They do not understand ^Qa/iaX^
to signify in that place " low," but its contiguity to the con-
tinent, to which it approaches very close ; nor by TravvrrepTarri
great elevation, but the farthest advance towards darkness,
{irpog i^ofov,) that is, placed towards the north more than all
the other islands, for this is what the poet means by " towards
darkness," the contrary to which is towards the south, {rrpog
voTor,)

" the rest far off (dvevOe) towards the morning, and the sun."*
For the word avevOe denotes " at a distance," and " apart," as
if the other islands lay to the south, and more distant from the
continent, but Ithaca near the continent and towards the north.
That the poet designates the southern part (of the heavens) in
this manner appears from these words,

*' whether they go to the right hand, towards the morning and the sun, or
to the left, towards cloudy darkness;" *

and still more evidently in these lines,

" my friends, we know not where darkness nor where morning lie, nor
where sets nor where rises the sun which brings light to man." ^

We may here understand the four climates,*^ and suppose the
morning to denote the southern part (of the heavens), and
this has some probability ; but it is better to consider what
is near to the path of the sun to be opposite to the northern
part (of the heavens). For the speech in Homer is intended
to indicate some great change in the celestial appearances, not
a mere obscuration of the climates. For this must happen

» Od. xiv. I.

2 tvdeieXog is the reading of the text, but the reading in Homer is
i7r7rj7\aroc, adapted for horses, and thus translated by Horace, Epist. lib.
I. yii. 41, Non est aptus equis Ithacae locus.

' Od. iv. 607. * Od. ix. 26. * II. xii. 239. « Od. x. 190.

■^ For the explanation of climate, see book ii. ch. i. § 20, but in this
passage the word has a diflferent sense, and implies the division of the
heavens into north, south, east, and west. The idea of Strabo seems
to be that of a straight line drawn from east to west, dividing the celes-
tial horizon into two parts, the one northern, (or arctic,) the other
southern. The sun in its course from east to west continues always as
regards us in the southern portion. Gossellin.

166 STRABO. Casaub. 455.

during every cloudy season either by day or by night. Now
the celestial appearances alter very much as we advance more
or less towards the south, or the contrary ; but this alteration
does not prevent our observing the setting and rising of the
sun, for in fine weather these phenomena are always visible
whether in the south or the north. For the pole is the most
northerly point : when this moves, and is sometimes over our
heads and sometimes below the earth, the arctic circles change
their position with it. Sometimes they disappear during
these movements, so that you cannot discern the position of
the northern climate, nor where it commences ; ^ and if this
is so, neither can you distinguish the contrary climate.

The circuit of Ithaca is about 80 '-^ stadia. So much then
concerning Ithaca.

13. The poet does not mention Cephallenia, which contains
four cities, by its present name, nor any of the cities except
one, either Same or Samos, which no longer exists, but traces
o'f it are shown in the middle of the Strait near Ithaca. The
inhabitants have the name of Samge. The rest still exist at
present, they are small cities, Paleis, Pronesus, and Cranii.
In our time Caius Antonius, the uncle of Marcus Antonius,
founded an additional city, when (being an exile after his con-
sulship in which he was the colleague of Cicero the orator) he
lived at Cephallenia, and was master of the whole island, as
if it had been his own property. He returned from exile be-
fore he completed the foundation of the settlement, and died
when engaged in more important affairs.

14. Some writers do not hesitate to affirm, that Cephallenia
and Dulichium are the same ; others identify it with Taphos,
and the Cephallenians with Taphians, and these again with
Teleboee. They assert that Amphitryon, with the aid of Ce-
phalus, the son of DeToneus, an exile from Athens, undertook
an expedition against the island, and having got possession of
it, delivered it up to Cephalus ; hence this city bore his name,
and the rest those of his children. But this is not in accord-
ance with Homer, for the Cephallenians were subject to
Ulysses and Laertes, and Taphos to Mentes ;

" I boast that I am Mentes, son of the valiant Anchialus,
And king of the Taphians, skilful rowers." ^

' oi)^' oTTov dpxr]. ^ So in the text, but there is manifestly an error.
3 Od. i. 181.

B. X. c. II. § 15, 16. CEPHALLENIA. 167

Taphos is now called Taphius.^ Nor does Hellanicus follow
Homer when he calls Cephallenia, Dulichium, for Dulichium,
and the other Echinades, are said to be under the command
of Meges, and the inhabitants, Epeii, who came from Elis;
wherefore he calls Otus the Cyllenian,

" companion of Phyleides, chief of the magnanimous Epeii ; " ^
"but Ulysses led the magnanimous Cephallenes." ^

Neither, as Andro asserts, is Cephallenia, according to Homer,
Dulichium, nor does Dulichium belong to Cephallenia, for
Epeii possessed Dulichium, and Cephallenians the whole of
Cephallenia,' the former of whom were under the command
of Ulysses, the latter of Meges. Paleis is not called Du-
lichium by Homer, as Pherecydes says. But he who asserts
that Cephallenia and Dulichium are the same contradicts
most strongly -the account of Homer ; for as fifty-two of the
suitors came from Dulichium, and twenty-four from Same,
would he not say, that from the whole island came such a
number of suitors, and from a single city of the four came
half the number within two ? If any one should admit this,
we shall inquire what the Same could be, which is mentioned
in this line,

" Dulichium and Same, and the woody Zacynthus." *

15. Cephallenia is situated opposite to Acarnania, at the dis-
tance from Leucatas of about 50, or according to others, of 40
stadia, and from Chelonatas^ of about 80 stadia. It is about 300
stadia (1300 ?) in circumference. It extends in length towards
the south-east (Eurus). It is mountainous ; the largest moun-
tain in it is the JEnus,^ on which is the temple of Jupiter
-3i]nesius. Here is the narrowest part of the island, which forms
a low isthmus, that is frequently overflowed from sea to sea.^
Cranii ^ and Paleis ^ are situated near the straits in the Gulf.

16. Between Ithaca and Cephallenia is the small island

1 I. Meganisi. 2 II. xv. 519. 3 II. ii. 631.

" Od. i. 246. * C. Tornese. « Monte Nero.

' We may hence conjecture that Cephallenia in the time of Homer
was divided into two parts, Dulichium and Sam6. It may explain at
least the uncertainty of the ancients respecting the position of Dulichium.
Pausanias, b. vi, c. 15, speaking of the Paleis says, that formerly they
were called Dulichii; and Hesychius, that Dulichium is a city of Ce-
phallenia.

* Situated near the modem capital Argostoli.

^ Probably the site X)f the ruins in the harbour of Viscardo.

168 STRABO. Casaub. 457.

Asteria,^ or Asteris, as it is called by the poet, which, accord-
ing to Demetrius, the Scepsian, does not remain in the state
described by the poet,

" there are harbours in it, open on both sides, for the reception of vessels.""
But ApoUodorus says that it exists even at present, and men-
tions a small city in it, Alalcomenae, situated quite upon the
isthmus.

17. The poet also gives the name of Samos to Thracia,
which we now call Samothrace. He was probably acquainted
with the Ionian island, for he seems to have been acquainted
with the Ionian migration. He would not, otherwise, have
made a distinction between islands of the same names, for in
speaking of Samothrace, he makes the distinction sometimes
by the epithet,

" on high, upon the loftiest summit of the woody Samos, the Thracian,"'
sometimes by uniting it with the neighbouring islands,

" to Samos, and Imbros, and inaccessible Lemnos ;'"*
and again,

" between Samos and rocky Imbros." ^
He was therefore acquainted with the Ionian island, although
he has not mentioned its name. Nor had it formerly always
the same name, but was called Melamphylus, then Anthemis,
then Parthenia, from the river Parthenius, the name of which
was changed to Imbrasus. Since then both Cephallenia and
Samothrace were called Samos ^ at the time of the Trojan
war, (for if it had not been so Hecuba would not have been
introduced saying, that Achilles would sell any of her chil-
dren that he could seize at Samos and Imbros,*^) Ionian Samos
was not yet colonized (by lonians), which is evident from its
having the same name from one of the islands earlier (called
Samos), that had it before; whence this also is clear, that
those persons contradict ancient history, who assert, that
colonists came from Samos after the Ionian migration, and
the arrival of Tembrion, and gave the name of Samos to
Samothrace. The Samians invented this story out of vanity.
Those are more entitled to credit, who say, that heights arc

» I. Dascaglio. * od. iv. 846. ^ II. xiii. 12.

< II. xxiv. 753. 5 II. xxiv. 78.

« In the Valle d' Alessandro, in Cephalonia, there is still a place called
Same. ' II. xxiv. 752.

B. X. c. II. § 18, 19. ZACYNTHUS. ECHINADES.

169

called Sami,^ and that the island obtained its name from this
circumstance, for from thence

" was seen all Ida, the city of Priam, and the ships of the Greeks."'
But according to some writers, Samos had its name from the
Saii, a Thracian tribe, who formerly inhabited it, and who oc-
cupied also the adjoining continent, whether they were the
same people as the Sapae, or the Sinti, whom the poet calls
Sinties, or a different nation. Archilochus mentions the
Saii;

" one of the Saii is exulting in the possession of an honourable shield,
which I left against my will near a thicket."

18. Of the islands subject to Ulysses there remains to be
described Zacynthus.^ It verges a little more than Cephal-
lenia to the west of Peloponnesus, but approaches closer to it.
It is 160 stadia in circumference, and distant from Cephallenia
about 60 stadia. It is woody, but fertile, and has a consider-
able city of the same name. Thence to the Hesperides be-
longing to Africa are 3300'* stadia.

19. To the east of this island, and of Cephallenia, are situ-
ated the Echinades^ islands; among which is Dulichium, at
present called Dolicha, and the islands called Oxeiae, to which
the poet gives the name of Thoae.^

Dolicha is situated opposite to the CEniadas, and the mouth
of the Achelous : it is distant from Araxus,' the promontory
of Elis, 100 stadia. The rest of the Echinades are numerous,
they are all barren and rocky, and lie in front of the mouth
of the Achelous, the most remote of them at the distance of
15, the nearest at the distance of 5 stadia; they formerly
were farther out at sea, but the accumulation of earth, which
is brought down in great quantity by the Achelous, has al-
ready joined some, and will join others, to the continent. This
accumulation of soil anciently formed the tract Paracheloitis,
which the river overflows, a subject of contention, as it was
continually confounding boundaries, which had been de-
termined by the Acarnanians and the ^tolians. For want of
arbitrators they decided their dispute by arms. The most

» "Ednoi. 2 II. xiii. 13, » Zante.

* 3600 stadia ? see b. xvii. c. iii. § 20.

* Curzolari, Oxia, Petala, &c. « O^. xv. 298. ^ C. Papa.

170 STRABO. CA8AUB. 458.

powerful gained the victory. This gave occasion to a fable,
how Hercules overcame the Achelous in figlit, and received in
marriage as the prize of his victory, Dei'aneira, daughter of
OEneus. Sophocles introduces her, saying,

" My suitor was a river, I mean the Achelous, who demanded me of ray
father under three forms ; one while coming as a bull of perfect form,
another time as a spotted writhing serpent, at another with the body of a
man and the forehead of a bull." '

Some writers add, that this was the horn of Amaltheia, which
Hercules broke off from the Achelous, and presented to
Q^neus as a bridal gift. Others, conjecturing the truth in-
cluded in this story, say, that Achelous is reported to have
resembled a bull, like other rivers, in the roar of their waters,
and the bendings of their streams, which they term horns ;
and a serpent from its length and oblique course ; and bull-
fronted because it was compared to a bull's head ; and that
Hercules, who, on other occasions, was disposed to perform
acts of kindness for the public benefit, so particularly, when he
was desirous of contracting an alliance with Qiineus, performed
for him these services ; he prevented the river from overflow-
ing its banks, by constructing mounds and by diverting its
streams by canals, and by draining a large tract of the Para-
cheloitis, which had been injured by the river ; and this is the
horn of Amaltheia.

Homer says, that in the time of the Trojan war the Echi-
nades, and the Oxeiae were subject to Meges,

" son of the hero Phyleus, beloved of Jupiter, who formerly repaired to
Dulichium on account of a quarrel with his father."^

The father of Phyleus was Augeas, king of Elis, and of the
Epeii. The Epeii then, who possessed these islands, were
those who had migrated to Dulichium with Phyleus.

20. The islands of the Taphii, and formerly of the Tele-
boas, among which was Taphus, now called Taphius, were
distinct from the Echinades, not separated by distance, (for
they lie near one another,) but because they were ranged un-
der different chiefs, Taphii and Telebose. In earlier times
Amphitryon, in conjunction with Cephalus, the son of Deio-
neus, an exile from Athens, attacked, and then delivered them
up to the government of Cephalus. But the poet says that

' Sophocles, Trachinicfi, v. 9. ^ n ^i 628.

B. X. c. II. § 21. ISLANDS OF THE TAPHII. 171

Mentes was their chief, and calls them robbers, which was
the character of all the Teleboae.

So much then concerning the islands off Acarnania.

21. Between Leucas and the Ambracian gulf is a sea-lake,
called Myrtuntium.^ Next to Leucas followed Paleerus, and
Alyzia, cities of Acarnania, of which Alyzia is distant from
the sea 1 5 stadia. Opposite to it is a harbour sacred to Her-
cules, and a grove from whence a Roman governor trans-
ported to Rome " the labours of Hercules," the workmanship
of Lysippus, which was lying in an unsuitable place, being a
deserted spot.^

Next are Crithote,^ a promontory, and the Echinades, and
Astacus, used in the singular number, a city of the same name
as that near Nicomedia, and the Gulf of Astacus, Crithote, a
city of the same name as that in the Thracian Chersonesus.
All the coast between these places has good harbours. Then
follows QEniad^e, and the Achelous ; then a lake belonging to
the Q^niadee, called Melite, 30 stadia in length, and in breadth
20 ; then another Cynia, of double the breadth and length of
Melite ; a third Uria,^ much less than either of the former.
Cynia even empties itself into the sea ; the others are situated
above it at the distance of about half a stadium.

Next is the river Evenus, which is distant from Actium
670 stadia.

Then follows the mountain Chalcis, which Artemidorus
calls Chalcia ; [next Pleuron, then Licyrna, a village, above
which in the interior is situated Calydon at the distance of 30
stadia. Near Calydon is the temple of Apollo Laphrius;]^
then the mountain Taphiassus ; then Macynia, a city ; then
Molycria, and near it Antirrhium, the boundary of iEtolia
and of Locris. To Antirrhium from the Evenus are about
120 stadia.

Artemidorus does not place the mountain, whether Chalcis
or Chalcia, between the Achelous and Pleuron, but Apollo-

* Not identified.

^ Gossellin remarks the double error coinmitted by Winkelman, who,
on the authority of this passage, states that the Hercules (not the Labours
of Hercules) of Lysippus was transferred to Rome in the time of Nero,
long after this Book was written.

^ Dragomestre. ■* The lake Xerolimne.

* Kramer proposes the transposition of the sentence within brackets
to the beginning of the paragraph.

172 STRABO. Casaub. 460.

dorus, as I have said before, places Chalcis and Taphiassus
above Molycria ; and Calydon between Pleuron and Chalcis.
Are we then to place one mountain of the name of Chalcia
near Pleuron, and another of the name of Chalcis near
Molycria ?

Near Calydon is a large lake, abounding with fish. It be-
longs to the Romans of Patrae.

22. Apollodorus says, that there is in the inland parts of
Acarnania, a tribe of Erysichaei, mentioned by Alcman,

" not an Erysichaean, nor a shepherd ; but I came from the extremities
of Sardis."

Olenus belonged to JEtolia ; Homer mentions it in the ^to-
lian Catalogue,^ but traces alone remain of it near Pleuron
below Aracynthus.^

Lysimachia also was near Olenus. This place has disap-
peared. It was situated upon the lake, the present Lysima-
chia, formerly Hydra, between Pleuron and the city Arsinoe,^
formerly a village of the name of Conopa. It was founded by
Arsinoe, wife and also sister of the second Ptolemy. It is
conveniently situated above the passage across the Achelous.

Pylene has experienced nearly the same fate as Olenus.

When the poet describes Calydon '* as lofty, and rocky, we
must understand these epithets as relating to the character of
the country. For we have said before, that when they di-
vided the country into two parts, they assigned the moun-
tainous portion and the Epictetus ^ to Calydon, and the tract of
plains to Pleuron.

23. The Acarnanians, and the -^tolians, like many other
nations, are at present worn out, and exhausted by continual
wars. The ^tolians however, in conjunction with the Acar-
nanians, during a long period withstood the Macedonians and
the other Greeks, and lastly the Romans, in their contest for
independence.

But since Homer, and others, both poets and historians,
frequently mention them, sometimes in clear and undisputed
terms, and sometimes less explicitly, as appears from what we
have already said of these people, we must avail ourselves of
some of the more ancient accounts, which will supply us with

' Il.ii. 639. 2 M. Zigos. ^ Angelo Castron.

* Near Mauro Mati. ^ See c. ii. § 3, Epictetus.

B. X. c. II. § 24. ACARNANIA. ^TOLIA. 173

a beginning, or with an occasion of inquiring into what is
controverted.

24. First then with respect to Acarnania. We have al-
ready said, that it was occupied by Laertes and the Cephalle-
nians ; but as many writers have advanced statements respect-
ing the first occupants in terms sufficiently clear, indeed, but
contradictory, the inquiry and discussion are left open to us.

They say, that the Taphii and Teleboae, as they are called,
were the first inhabitants of Acarnania, and that their chief,
Cephalus, who was appointed by Amphitryon sovereign of the
islands about Taphus, was master also of this country. Hence
is related of him the fable, that he was the first person who
took the reputed leap from Leucatas. But the poet does not
say, that the Taphii inhabited Acarnania before the arrival of
the Cephallenians and Laertes, but that they were friends cf
the Ithacenses ; consequently, in his time, either they had
not the entire command of these places, or had voluntarily re-
tired, or had even become joint settlers.

A colony of certain from Lacedaemon seems to have settled
in Acarnania, who were followers of Icarius, father of Pene-
lope, for the poet in the Odyssey represents him and the
brothers of Penelope as then living ;

" who did not dare to go to the palace of Icarius with a view of his dis-
posing of his daughter in marriage." ^

And with respect to the brothers ;

" for now a long time both her father and her brothers were urging her

to marry Eurymachus." '

Nor is it probable that they were living at Lacedaemon, for
Telemachus would not, in that case, have been the guest of
Menelaus upon his arrival, nor is there a tradition, that they
had any other habitation. But they say that Tyndareus and
his brother Icarius, after being banished from their own
country by Hippocoon, repaired to Thestius, the king of the
Pleuronii, and assisted in obtaining possession of a large
tract of country on the other side of the Achelous on condi-
tion of receiving a portion of it; that Tyndareus, having
espoused Leda the daughter of Thestius, returned home ; that
Icarius continued there in possession of a portion of Acar-
nania, and had Penelope and her brothers by his wife Poly-
casta^ daughter of Lygasus.

» Od. ii. 52. ' Od. XV. 16.

174 STRABO. Casaub. 461.

We have shown by the Catalogue of the Ships in Homer,
that the Acarnanians were enumerated among the people who
took part in the war of Troy ; and among these are reckoned
the inhabitants of the Acte, and besides these,

" they who occupied Epirus, and cultivated the land opposite."
But Epirus was never called Acarnania, nor Acte, Leucas.

25. Ephorus does not say that they took part in the expe-
dition against Troy ; but he says that Alcma^on, the son of
Amphiaraus, who was the companion of Diomede, and the
other Epigoni in their expedition, having brought the war
against the Thebans to a successful issue, went with Diomede
to assist in punishing the enemies of CEneus, and having de-
livered up JEtolia to Diomede, he himself passed over into
Acarnania, which country also he subdued. In the mean
time Agamemnon attacked the Argives, and easily overcame
them, the greatest part having attached themselves to the fol-
lowers of Diomede. But a short time afterwards, when the
expedition took place against Troy, he was afraid, lest, in his
absence with the army, Diomede and his troops should return
home, (for there was a rumour that he had collected a large
force,) and should regain possession of a territory to which
they had the best right, one being the heir of Adrastus, the
other of his father. Reflecting then on these circumstances,
he invited them to unite in the recovery of Argos, and to
take part in the war. Diomede consented to take part in the
expedition, but Alcmseon was indignant and refused ; whence
the Acarnanians were the only people who did not partici-
pate in the expedition with the Greeks. The Acarnanians,
probably by following this account, are said to have imposed
upon the Romans, and to have obtained from them the privi-
lege of an independent state, because they alone had not
taken part in the expedition against the ancestors of the Ro-
mans, for their names are neither in the ^tolian Catalogue,
nor are they mentioned by themselves, nor is their name
mentioned anywhere in the poem.

26. Ephorus then having represented Acarnania as subject
to Alcmason before the Trojan war, ascribes to him the found-
ation of Amphilochian Argos, and says that Acarnania had
its name from his son Acarnan, and the Amphilochians from
his brother Amphilochus ; thus he turns aside to reports con-
trary to the history in Homer. But Thucydides and other

B. X. c. III. § 1. CURETES. 175

writers saj, that Amphllochus, on his return from the Trojan
expedition, being displeased with the state of affairs at Argos,
dwelt in this country ; according to some writers, he obtained
it bj succeeding to the dominions of his brother ; others re-
present" it differently. So much then respecting the Acarna-
nians considered by themselves. We shall now speak of their
affairs where they are intermixed in common with those of
the JEtolians, and we shall then relate as much of the history
of the ^tolians as we proposed to add to our former account
of this people.

CHAPTER III.

1. Some writers reckon the Curetes among the Acarnani-
ans, others among the -3iltolians ; some allege that they came
from Crete, others that they came from Euboea. Since,
however, they are mentioned by Homer, we must first ex-
amine his account of them. It is thought that he does not
mean the Acarnanians, but the ^tolians, in the following
verses, for the sons of Porthaon were,

" Agrius, Melas, and the hero CEneus,
These dwelt at Pleuron, and the lofty Calydon," *

both of which are ^tolian cities, and are mentioned in the
JEtolian Catalogue ; wherefore since those who inhabited
Pleuron appear to be, according to Homer, Curetes, they
might be -<Etolians. The opponents of this conclusion are
misled by the mode of expression in these verses,
" Curetes and iEtolians, firm in battle, were fighting for the city Calydon,"*
for neither would he have used appropriate terms if he had
said,

" Boeotians and Thebans were contending against each other,"
nor

" Argives and Peloponnesians.'*

But we have shown in a former part of this work, that this
mode of expression is usual with Homer, and even trite among
other poets. This objection then is easily answered. But
let the objectors explain, how, if these people were not jEto-

» II. xiv. 116. 2 ii_ ix. 525.

176 STRABO. Casaub. 463.

lians, the poet came to reckon the Pleuronii among the -^to-
lians.

2. Ephorus, after having asserted that the nation of the
^tolians were never in subjection to any other people, but,
from all times of which any memorial remains, their country
continued exempt from the ravages of war, both on account of
its local obstacles and their own experience in warfare, says,
that from the beginning Curetes were in possession of the
whole country, but on the arrival of ^tolus, the son of Endy-
mion, from Elis, who defeated them in various battles, the
Curetes retreated to the present Acarnania, and the JEtolians
returned with a body of Epeii, and founded ten of the most
ancient cities in JEtolia ; and in the tenth generation after-
wards Elis was founded, in conjunction with that people, by
Oxylus, the son of Haemon, who had passed over from ^tolia.
They produce, as proofs of these facts, inscriptions, one
sculptured on the base of the statue of ^tolus at Therma in
^Etolia, where, according to the custom of the country, they
assemble to elect their magistrates ;

" this statue of ^tolus, son of Endymion, brought up near the streams of
the Alpheius, and in the neighbourhood of the stadia of Olympia, -lEtolians
dedicated as a public monument of his merits."

And the other inscription on the statue of Oxylus is in the
market-place of Elis ;

" uiEtolus, having formerly abandoned the original inhabitants of this
country, won by the toils of war the land of the Curetes. But Oxylus,
the son of Haemon, the tenth scion of tliat race, founded this ancient
city."

3. He rightly alleges, as a proof of the affinity subsisting
reciprocally between the Eleii and the -^tolians, these in-
scriptions, both of which recognise not the affinity alone, but
also that their founders had established settlers in each other's
country. Whence he clearly convicts those of falsehood who
assert, that the Eleii were a colony of JEtolians, and that the
-^tolians were not a colony of Eleii. But he seems to ex-
hibit the same inconsistency in his positions here, that we
proved ^ with regard to the oracle at Delphi. For after as-
serting that ^tolia had never been ravaged by war from all
time of which there was any memorial, and saying, that from
the first the Curetes were in possession of this country, he

' B. ix. c. iii. § 11.

B. X. c. III. § 4, 5. THE CURETES. 177

ought to have inferred from such premises, that the Curetes
continued to occupy the country of -.Etolia to his days. For
in this manner it might be understood never to have been
devastated, nor in subjection to any other nation. But for-
getting his position, he does not infer this, but the contrary,
that ^tolus came from Elis, and having defeated the Curetes
in various battles, these people retreated into Acarnania.
What else then is there peculiar to the devastation of a country
than the defeat of the inhabitants in war and their abandon-
ment of their land, which is evinced by the inscription among
the Eleii ; for speaking of ^tolus the words are,
" he obtained possession of the country of the Curetes by the continued
toils of war.''

4. But perhaps some person may say, that he means jiEtolia
was not laid waste, reckoning from the time that it had this
name after the arrival of ^tolus ; but he takes away the
ground of this supposition, by saying afterwards, that the
greatest part of the people, that remained among the ^tolians,
were those called Epeii, with whom JEtolians were after-
wards intermingled, who had been expelled from Thessaly
together with Boeotians, and possessed the country in common
with these people. But is it probable that, without any hos-
tilities, they invaded the country of another nation and
divided it among themselves and the original possessors,
who did not require such a partition of their land ? If this is
not probable, is it to be believed that the victors agreed to an
equal division of the territory ? What else then is devastation
of a country, but the conquest of it by arms ? Besides, Apol-
lodorus says that, according to history, the Hyantes aban-
doned Boeotia and came and settled among the -^tolians, and
concludes as confident that his opinion is right by saying it is
our custom to relate these and similar facts exactly, when-
ever any of them is altogether dubious, or concerning which
erroneous opinions are entertained.

5. Notwithstanding these faults in Ephorus, still he is
superior to other writers. Poly bins himself, who has stu-
diously given him so much praise, has said that Eudoxus has
written well on Grecian aifairs, but that Ephorus has given
the best account of the foundation of cities, of the relationship
subsisting between nations, of changes of settlements, and of
leaders of colonies, in these words, " but I shall explain the

178 STRABO. Casaub. 465.

present state of places, both as to position and distances ; for
this is the peculiar province of chorography." ^

But you, Polybius, who introduce popular hearsay, and
rumours on the subject of distances, not only of places beyond
Greece, but in Greece itself, have you not been called to
answer the charges sometimes of Posidonius, sometimes of
Artemidorus, and of many other writers ? ought you not there-
fore to excuse us, and not to be offended, if in transferring
into our own work a large part of the historical poets from
such writers we commit some errors, and to commend us when
we are generally more exact in what we say than others, or
supply what they omitted through want of information.

6. With respect to the Curetes, some facts are related
which belong more immediately, some more remotely, to the
history of the -^tolians and Acarnanians. The facts more
immediately relating to them, are those which have been
mentioned before, as that the Curetes were living in the
country which is now called ^tolia, and that a body of
^tolians under the command of ^tolus came there, and drove
them into Acarnania ; and these facts besides, that ^olians
invaded Pleuronia, which was inhabited by Curetes, and
called Curetis, took away their territory, and expelled the
possessors.

But Archemachus^ of Euboea says that the Curetes had
their settlement at Chalcis, but being continually at war about
the plain Lelantum, and finding that the enemy used to seize
and drag them by the hair of the forehead, they wore their
hair long behind, and cut the hair short in front, whence they
had the name of Curetes, (or the shorn,) from cura, (Kovpa,)
or the tonsure which they had undergone ; that they removed
to jEtolia, and occupied the places about Pleuron ; that
others, who lived on the other side of the Achelous, because
they kept their heads unshorn, were called Acarnanians. ^

But according to some writers each tribe derived its name
from some hero ; ^ according to others, that they had the

' As distinguished from geography. See b. i. c. i. § 16, note ^

* The author of a work in several books on Euboea. Athenseus, b. vi.
c. J 8.

^ The unshorn.

* From Acarnan, son of Alcmaeon. Thucyd. b. ii. c. 102. But the hero
firom whom the Curetes obtained their name is not mentioned.

B. X. c. III. § 7. THE CURETES. 179

name of Curetes from the mountain Curium,^ whicli is situated
above Pleuron, and that this is an ^tolian tribe, like the
Ophieis, Agraei, Eurytanes, and many others.

But, as we have before said, when ^Etolia was divided into
two parts, the country about Calydon was said to be in the
possession of Qi^neus ; and a portion of Pleuronia in that of
the Porthaonidae of the branch of Agrius, ^ for

"they dwelt at Pleuron, and the lofty Calydon."^

Thestius however, father-in-law of Q^neus, and father of
Althaea, chief of the Curetes, was master of Pleuronia. But
when war broke out between the Thestiadae, QEneus, and
Meleager about a boar's head and skin, according to the poet,*
following the fable concerning the boar of Calydon, but, as is
probable, the dispute related to a portion of the territory ; the
words are these,

" Curetes and ^tolians, firm in battle, fought against one another."*

These then are the facts more immediately connected (with
geography).

7. There ^ are others more remote from the subject of this

' The position of this mountain is not determined.

^ GEneus and his children were themselves Porthaonidae. (Eneus had
possession only of Calydon, his brother Agrius and his children had a
part of Pleuronia. Thestius, cousin-german of CEneus and of Agrius, re-
ceived as his portion the remainder of Pleuronia and transmitted it to his
children, (the Thestiadse,) who probably succeeded in gaining possession
of the whole country. The Porthaonidae of the branch of Agrius, were
Thersites, Onchestus, Prothous, Celeulor, Lycopeiis, and Melanippus.
Apollodorus, b. i. c. 7, 8.

3 II. xiv. 117. * II. ix. 544. « II. ix. 525.

* " Cette digression est curieuse, sans doute * * * * Plusieurs cri-
tiques ont fait de ce morceau I'objet de leur etude ; neanmoins il demeure
heriss^ de difficultes, et dernierement M. Heyne (quel juge ! ) a pro-
nonce que tout y restait a ^claircir. Du Theil.

The myths relating to the Curetes abound with different statements
and 'confusion. The following are the only points to be borne in mind.
The Curetes belong to the most ancient times of Greece, and probably
are to be counted among the first inhabitants of Phrygia. They were the
authors and expositors of certain religious rites, which they celebrated
with dances. According to mythology they played a part at the birth of
Jupiter. They were sometimes called Idaean Dactyli. Hence their
name was given to the ministers of the worship of the Great Mother
among the Phrygians, which was celebrated with a kind of religious
frenzy. The Curetes were also called Corybantes. Hence also arose the
confusion between the religious rites observed in Crete, Phrygia, and

N 2

180 STRABO. C AS ALB. 466.

work, which have been erroneously placed by historians
under one head on account of the sameness of name : for in-
stance, accounts relating to " Curetic affairs " and " concerning
the Curetes " have been considered as identical with accounts
"concerning the people (of the same name) who inhabited
^Etolia and Acarnania." But the former differ from the
latter, and resemble rather the accounts which we have of
Satyri and Silenes, Bacchse and Tityri ; for the Curetes are
represented as certain daemons, or ministers of the gods, by
those who have handed down the traditions respecting Cretan
and Phrygian affairs, and which involve certain religious
rites, some mystical, others the contrary, relative to the nur-
ture of Jupiter in Crete ; the celebration of orgies in honour
of the mother of the gods, in Phrygia, and in the neighbour-
hood of the Trojan Ida. There is however a very great
variety^ in these accounts. According to some, the Cory-
bantes, Cabeiri, Idaean Dactyli, and Telchines are repre-
sented as the same persons as the Curetes ; according to
others, they are related to, yet distinguished from, each other
by some slight differences ; but to describe them in general
terms and more at length, they are inspired with an enthusi-
astic and Bacchic frenzy, which is exhibited by them as minis-
ters at the celebration of the sacred rites, by inspiring terror
with armed dances, accompanied with the tumult and noise
of cymbals, drums, and armour, and with the sound of pipes
and shouting ; so that these sacred ceremonies are nearly the
same as those that are performed among the Samothracians
in Lemnus, and in many other places ; since the ministers of
the god are said to be the same.^ The whole of this kind of

Samothrace. Again, on the other hand, the Curetes have been mistaken
for an iEtolian people, bearing the same name. Heyne, Not. ad Virgil.
JEn. iii. 130. Religion, et Sacror. cum furore peract. Orig. Comra. Soc.
R. Scient. Gotting. vol. viii. Dupuis, origin de tons les cultes, torn. 2.
Sainte Croix Mem. pour servir a la religion Secrete, &c.. Job. Guberleth.
Diss, philol. de Myster. deorum Cabir. 1703. Froret. Recher. pour servir
a I'histoire des Cyclopes, &c. Acad, des Inscript. &c., vol. xxiii. His.
pag. 27. 1749.

' rotravTT] TroiKiXia, will bear alsQ to be translated, id tantum varietatis,
" this difference only," as Groskurd observes.

2 M. de Saint Croix (Recherches sur les Mystdres, &c. sect. 2, page
25) is mistaken in asserting that " Strabo clearly refutes the statements
of those who believed that the Cabeiri, Dactyli, Curetes, Corybantes, and
Telchines, were not only the same kind of persons, but even separate

B. X. c. III. § 8. THE CURETES. 181

discussion is of a theological nature, and is not alien to the
contemplation of the philosopher.

8. But since even the historians, through the similarity of
the name Curetes, have collected into one body a mass of dis-
similar facts, I myself do not hesitate to speak of them at
length by way of digression, adding the physical considera-
tions which belong to the history. ^ Some writers however en-
deavour to reconcile one account with the other, and perhaps
they have some degree of probability in their favour. They
say, for instance, that the people about ^Etolia have the name
of Curetes from wearing long dresses like girls, (/cdpai,) and
that there was, among the Greeks, a fondness for some such
fashion. The lonians also were called " tunic-trailers," ^ and
the soldiers of Leonidas,^ who went out to battle with their
hair dressed, were despised by the Persians, but subjects of
their admiration in the contest. In short, the application
of art to the hair consists in attending to its growth, and the
manner of cutting it, ^ and both these are the peculiar care of
girls and youths ;^ whence in several ways it is easy to find a
derivation of the name Curetes. It is also probable, that the
practice of armed dances, first introduced by persons who
paid so much attention to their hair and their dress, and who
were called Curetes, afforded a pretence for men more warlike
than others, and who passed their lives in arms, to be them-
selves called by the same name of Curetes, I mean those in
Euboea, ^tolia, and Acarnania. Homer also gives this name
to the young soldiers ;

" selecting Curetes, the bravest of the Achaeans, to carry from the swift
ship, presents, which, yesterday, we promised to Achilles." *

members of the same family." It appears to me, on the contrary, that
this was the opinion adopted by our author. Du Theil.

• TTpoaQiiQ TOP oiKelov ry iGTopia (pvaiKov Xoyov. rationem naturalem,
utpote congruentum hue, historiae adjiciens. Xy lander. Or paraphrased,
" The history of this people will receive additional and a fitting illustra-
tion by a reference to physical facts," such as the manner of wearing
their hair, tonsure, &c.

■'' iXKSxi-Tujvag. The words Kai Kpu)j3v\ov Kai rsrriya g/iTrXfx^jjvat
appear, according to Berkel. ad Steph. p. 74, to be here wanting, " and to
bind the hair in the form of the Crobulus and ornamented with a grass-
hopper." The hair over the forehead of the Apollo Belvidere is an ex-
ample of the crobulus.

' Herod, vii. 208. * Kovpav rpixog. * Kopaig Kai Kopoig.

* Strabo therefore considered the 193, 194, 195 verses' of II. xix. as

182 STRABO. Casaub. 467.

And again ;

" Curetes Achaei carried the presents." ^
So much then on the subject of the etymology of the name
Curetes. [The dance in armour is a military dance ; this is
shown by the Pyrrhic dance and by Pyrrichus, who, it is said,
invented this kind of exercise for youths, to prepare them for
military service.]^

9. We are now to consider how the names of these people
agree together, and the theology, which is contained in their
history.

Now this is common both to the Greeks and the Barba-
rians, to perform their religious ceremonies with the observ-
ance of a festival, and a relaxation from labour ; some are
performed with enthusiasm, others without any emotion;
some accompanied with music, others without music ; some in
mysterious privacy, others publicly ; and these are the dictates
of nature.^ For relaxation from labour withdraws the thoughts
from human occupations, and directs the reflecting mind to the
divinity ; enthusiasm seems to be attended with a certain di-
vine inspiration, and to approach the prophetic character;
the mystical concealment of the sacred rites excites veneration
for the divinity, and imitates his nature, which shuns human
senses and perception ; music also, accompanied with the
dance, rhythm, and song, for the same reason brings us near
the deity by the pleasure which it excites, and by the charms
of art. For it has been justly said, that men resemble the
gods chiefly in doing good, but it may be said more properly,
when they are happy ; and this happiness consists in rejoic-
ing, in festivals, in philosophy, and in music. ^ For let not
the art be blamed, if it should sometimes be abused by the
musician employing it to excite voluptuousness in convivial

authentic. Heyne was inclined to consider them as an interpolation, in
which he is supported by other critics.

' II. xix. 248. The text is probably mutilated, and Strabo may have
quoted the verses in Homer in which Merion is represented as dancing
in armour. II. xvi. 617.

' Kramer suspects this passage to be an interpolation.

' The reading in the text is rbv d' ovTojg vovv. The translation adopts
Meineke's reading, voovvra.

* Quam prseclare philosophatus sit Strabo, me non monente, unusquis-
que assequitur ; preeclarius, utique, quam illi, qui ex nostro ritu religiose
omnem hilaritatem exulare voluere. Heyne, Virg. iii. 130.

B. X. c. III. § 10, 11. THE CURETES. 183

meetings at banquets, on the stage, or under other circum-
stances, but let the nature of the institutions which are
founded on it be examined. •

10. Hence Plato, and, before his time, the Pythagoreans,
called music philosophy. They maintained that the world
subsisted by harmony, and considered every kind of music to
be the work of the gods. It is thus that the muses are re-
garded as deities, and Apollo has the name of President of
the Muses, and all poetry divine, as being conversant about
the praises of the gods. Thus also they ascribe to music the
formation of manners, as everything which refines the mind
approximates to the power of the gods.

The greater part of the Greeks attribute to Bacchus,
Apollo, Hecate, the Muses, and Ceres, everything connected
with orgies and Bacchanalian rites, dances, and the mysteries
attended upon initiation. They call also Bacchus, Dionysus,
and the chief Daemon of the mysteries of Ceres. ^ The carry-
ing about of branches of trees, dances, and initiations are
common to the worship of these gods. But with respect to
Apollo and the Muses, the latter preside over choirs of singers
and dancers ; the former presides both over these and divina-
tion. All persons instructed in science, and particularly
those who have cultivated music, are ministers of the Muses ;
these and also all who are engaged in divination are ministers
of Apollo. Those of Ceres, are the Mystae, torch-bearers
and Hierophants ; of Dionysus, Seileni, Satyri, Tityri, Bacchae,
Lenae, Thyiae, Mimallones, Naides, and Nymphag, as they are
called.

11. But in Crete both these, and the sacred rites of Jupiter
in particular, were celebrated with the performance of orgies,
and by ministers, like the Satyri, who are employed in the wor-
ship of Dionysus. These were called Curetes, certain youths
who executed military movements in armour, accompanied
with dancing, exhibiting the fable of the birth of Jupiter, in
which Saturn was introduced, whose custom it was to devour
his children immediately after their birth ; Rhea attempts to
conceal the pains of childbirth, and to remove the new-born
infant out of sight, using her utmost endeavours to preserve it.

' The original, as Du Theil observes, is singularly obscure, dW t]
^pvaic, rj Twv iraiStv^aToJv, i^eTu^saOoj, Trjv apxv^ tvOsvSe txovaa.
* Following the reading suggested by Groskurd.

184 STRABO. Casaub. 468.

In this she has the assistance of the Curetes who surround
the goddess, and by the noise of drums and other similar
sounds, by dancing in armour and by tumult, endeavour to
strike terror into Saturn, and escape notice whilst removing
his child. The child is then delivered into their hands to
be brought up with the same care by which he was rescued.
The Curetes therefore obtained this appellation, either be-
cause they were boys (/cojoot), or because they educated Jupiter
in his youth {Kovporpofeiy), for there are two explanations,
inasmuch as they acted the same part with respect to Jupiter
as the Satyri (with respect to Dionysus). Such then is the
worship of the Greeks, as far as relates to the celebration of
orgies.

12. But the Berecyntes, a tribe of Phrygians, the Phrygi-
ans in general, and the Trojans, who live about Mount Ida,
themselves also worship Rhea, and perform orgies in her
honour ; they call her mother of gods, Agdistis, and Phrygia, ^
the Great Goddess ; from the places also where she is wor-
shipped, Idaea, and Dindymene,^ Sipylene,^ Pessinuntis,* and
Cybele.^ The Greeks call her ministers by the same name
Curetes, not that they follow the same mythology, but they
mean a different kind of persons, a sort of agents analogous to
the Satyri. These same ministers are also called by them
Corybantes.

13. We have the testimony of the poets in favour of these
opinions. Pindar, in the Dithyrambus, which begins in this
manner ;

** formerly the dithyrambus used to creep upon the ground, long and
trailing."

After mentioning the hymns, both ancient and modern, in
honour of Bacchus, he makes a digression, and says,

" for thee, O Mother, resound the large circles of the cymbals, and the
ringing crotala ; for thee, blaze the torches of the yellow pine ;"

where he combines with one another the rites celebrated
among the Greeks in honour of Dionysus with those per-
formed among the Phrygians in honour of the mother of the

' This word appears here misplaced.

^ The chain of mountains extending from the sources of the Sagaris
(the Zagari) to the Propontis was called Dindymene.
' Sipuli Dagh. * Possene.

* This name is not derived from any place.

B. X. c. Til. § 13. THE CURETES. 185

gods. Euripides, in the Bacchae, does the same thing, con-
joining, from the proximity of the countries,^ Lydian and
Phrygian customs.

" Then forsaking Tmolus, the rampart of Lydia, my maidens, my pride,
[whom I took from among barbarians and made the partners and com-
panions of my way, raise on high the tambourine of Phrygia, the tam-
bourine of the great mother Rhea,] my invention.

" Blest and happy he who, initiated into the sacred rites of the gods,
leads a pure life ; who celebrating the orgies of the Great Mother Cy-
bele, who brandishing on high the thyrsus and with ivy crowned, becomes
Dionysus' worshipper. Haste, Bacchanalians, haste, and bring Bromius
Dionysus down from the Phrygian mountains to the wide plains of
Greece."

And again, in what follows, he combines with these the Cre-
tan rites.

" Hail, sacred haunt of the Curetes, and divine inhabitants of Crete,
progenitors of Jove, where for me the triple-crested Corybantes in their
caves invented this skin-stretched circle [of the tambourine], who
mingled with Bacchic strains the sweet breath of harmony from Phrygian
pipes, and placed in Rhea's hands this instrument which re-echoes to the
joyous shouts of Bacchanalians: from the Mother Rhea the frantic
Satyri succeeded in obtaining it, and introduced it into the dances of the
Trieterides, among whom Dionysus delights to dwell."'

• Std Tb ofiopov, for dia re "O/ij/pov. Meineke.

' The literal translation has been preserved in the text for the sake of
the argument. The following is Potter's translation, in which, hoAvever,
great liberty is taken with the original.

"To whom the mysteries of the gods are known.
By these his life he sanctifies,
And, deep imbibed their chaste and cleaning lore,
Hallows his soul for converse with the skies.
Enraptur'd ranging the wild mountains o'er,
The mighty mother's orgies leading,
He his head with ivy shading,
His light spear wreath'd with ivy twine,
To Bacchus holds the rites divine.
Haste then, ye Bacchae, haste,
Attend your god, the son of heaven's high king.
From Phrygia's mountains wild and waste
To beauteous-structur'd Greece your Bacchus bring

O ye Curetes, friendly band.

You, the blest natives of Crete's sacred land,
Who tread those groves, which, dark'ning round,

O'er infant Jove their shelt'ring branches spread.
The Corybantes in their caves profound.

The triple crest high waving on their head,

186 STRABO. Casaub. 470.

And the chorus in Palamedes says,

" Not revelling with Dionysus, who together with his mother was cheered

with the resounding drums along the tops of Ida."

14. Conjoining then Seilenus, Marsjas, and Olympus, and
ascribing to them the invention of the flute, they thus again
combine Dionysiac and Phrygian rites, frequently confound-
ing Ida and Olympus,^ and making them re-echo with their
noise, as if they were the same mountain. There are four
peaks of Ida called Olympi, opposite Antandros.^ There is
also a Mysian Olympus, bordering upon Ida, but not the same
mountain. Sophocles represents Menelaus in the Polyxena
as setting sail in haste from Troy, and Agamemnon as wish-
ing to remain behind a short time, with a view to propitiate
Minerva. He introduces Menelaus as saying,

"But do thou remain there on the Idsean land,
Collect the flocks on Olympus, and offer sacrifice." ^

15. Tbey invented terms appropriate to the sounds of the
pipe, of the crotala, cymbals, and drums ; to the noise also of
shouts ; to the cries of Evoe ; and to the beating of the ground
with the feet. They invented certain well-known names also
to designate the ministers, dancers, and servants employed
about the sacred rites, as Cabeiri, Corybantes, Pans, Satyri,
Tityri, the god Bacchus; Rhea, Cybele, Cybebe, and Din-
dymene, from the places where she was worshipped. [The
god] Sabazius belongs to the Phrygian rites, and may be
considered the child as it were of the [Great] Mother. The
traditional ceremonies observed in his worship are those of
Bacchus.'*

16. The rites called Cotytia, and Bendideia,^ celebrated

This timbrel framed, whilst clear and high

Swelled the Bacchic symphony.

The Phrygian pipe attemp'ring sweet,

Their voices to respondence meet.

And placed in Rhea's hands.
The frantic satyrs to the rites advance,

The Bacchae join the festive bands,
And raptur'd lead the Trieteric dance."

' There were several mountains bearing the name of Olympus. 1. In
Thessaly. 2. In Peloponnesus. 3. Of Ida. 4. In Mysia. 5. In Crete.
2 San Dimitri. ^ od. iii. 144.

* Adopting Kramer's suggestion of rrapaSovQ to. for irapaSovra.

* Bendis, Diana of the Thracians; among the Athenians there was a
festival called Bendideia.

B. X. c. III. § 17. THE CURETES. 187

among the Thracians, resemble these. The Orphic ceremonies
had tlieir origin among these people. -32schylus mentions the
goddess Cotys, and the instruments used in her worship
among the Edoni.^ For after saying,

" O divine Cotys, goddess of the Edoni,
With the instruments of the mountain worship ;"

immediately introduces the followers of Dionysus,

" one holding the bombyces, the admirable work of the turner, with the
fingers makes the loud notes resound, exciting frenzy ; another makes
the brass-bound cotylae to re-echo."

And in another passage ;

" The song of victory is poured forth ; invisible mimes low and bellow
from time to time like bulls, inspiring fear, and the echo of the drum rolls
along like the noise of subterranean thunder ; " ^

for these are like the Phrygian ceremonies, nor is it at all
improbable that, as the Phrygians themselves are a colony of
Thracians, so they brought from Thrace their sacred ceremo-
nies, and by joining together Dionysus and the Edonian
Lycurgus they intimate a similarity in the mode of the wor-
ship of both.

17. From the song, the rhythm, and the instruments, all
Thracian music is supposed to be Asiatic. This is evident
also from the places where the Muses are held in honour.
For Pieria, Olympus, Pimpla, and Leibethrum were anciently
places, and mountains, belonging to the Thracians, but at
present they are in the possession of the Macedonians. The
Thracians, who were settled in Boeotia, dedicated Helicon to
the Muses, and consecrated the cave of the Nymphs, Leibe-
thriades. The cultivators of ancient music are said to have
been Thracians, as Orpheus, Musaeus, Thamyris; hence also
Eumolpus had his name. Those who regard the whole
of Asia as far as India as consecrated to Bacchus, refer to
that country as the origin of a great portion of the present
music. One author speaks of " striking forcibly the Asiatic
cithara:" another calls the pipes Berecynthian and Phry-

* Athenseus, b. xi. c. 8. iEschylus in the Edoni (a fragment) calls
cymbals cotylae.

2 Probably from a passage in the Erectheus, a lost play of Euripides.

188 STRABO. Casaub. 471,

gian. Some of the instruments also have barbarous names,
as Nablas, Sambyce,^ Barbitus,^ Magadis,^ and many others.

18. As in other things the Athenians always showed
their admiration of foreign customs, so they displayed it in
what respected the gods. They adopted many foreign sacred
ceremonies, particularly those of Thrace and Phrygia ; for
which they were ridiculed in comedies. Plato mentions the
Bendidean, and Demosthenes the Phrygian rites, where he
is exposing ^schines and his mother to the scorn of the
people ; the former for having been present when his mother
was sacrificing, and for frequently joining the band of Baccha-
nalians in celebrating their festivals, and shouting, Evoi*,
Saboi, Hyes Attes, and Attes Hyes, for these cries belong to
the rites of Sabazius and the Great Mother.

19. But there may be discovered respecting these daemons,
and the variety of their names, that they were not called minis-
ters only of the gods, but themselves were called gods. For
Hesiod says that Hecaterus and the daughter of Phoroneus
had five daughters,

" From whom sprung the goddesses, the mountain nymphs,
And the worthless and idle race of satyrs,
And the gods Curetes, lovers of sport and dance."

The author of the Phoronis calls the Curetes, players upon
the pipe, and Phrygians ; others call them " earth-born, and
wearing brazen shields." Another author terms the Cory-
bantes, and not the Curetes, Phrygians, and the Curetes, Cret-
ans. Brazen shields were first worn in Euboea, whence the
people had the name of Chalcidenses.'^ Others say, that the
Corybantes who came from Bactriana, or, according to some
writers, from the Colchi, were given to Rhea, as a band of armed
ministers, by Titan. But in the Cretan history the Curetes
are called nurses and guardians of Jove, and are described as
having been sent for from Phrygia to Crete by Rhea. Ac-
cording to other writers, there were nine Telchines in
Rhodes, who accompanied Rhea to Crete, and from nursing^
Jupiter had the name of Curetes;^ that Corybus, one of
their party, was the founder of Hierapytna, and furnished the

' Nablas and Sambyce are Syriac words. AthenaBUS, b. iv. c. 24.
' The invention of Anacreon, according to Neanthus Cyzicenus.
3 Athenaeus, b. xiv. c. 8, 9. * See above, ch. iii. § 1, 6, 8.

* KovpoTpo<p7]<TavTtQ. ' KovprJTeQ.

B. X. c. III. § 20, 21. THE CURETES. 189

Prasians ^ in Rhodes with the pretext for saying that Cory-
bantes were certain daemons, children of Minerva and the sun.
By others, the Corybantes are represented to be the children
of Saturn ; by others, of Jupiter and Calliope, or to be the
same persons as the Cabeiri ; that they went away^ to Samo-
thrace,^ which was formerly called Melite ; but their lives
and actions are mysterious.

20. The Scepsian (Demetrius) who has collected fabulous
stories of this kind, does not receive this account because
no mysterious tradition about the Cabeiri is preserved in Sa-
mothrace, yet he gives the opinion of Stesimbrotus of Thasus,
to the effect that the sacred rites in Samothrace were celebrated
in honour of the Cabeiri.'^ Demetrius, however, says that they
had their name from Cabeirus, the mountain in Berecynthia.
According to others, the Curetes were the same as the Cory-
bantes, and were ministers of Hecate.

The Scepsian says in another place, in contradiction to
Euripides, that it is not the custom in Crete to pay divine
honours to Rhea, and that these rites were not established
there, but in Phrygia only, and in the Troad, and that they
who affirm the contrary are mythologists rather than histo-
rians ; and were probably misled by an identity of name, for
Ida is a mountain both in the Troad and in Crete; and
Dicte is a spot in the Scepsian territory, and a mountain in
Crete.^ Pytna is a peak of Ida, (and a mountain in Crete,)
whence the city Hierapytna has its name. There is Hippo-
corona in the territory of Adramyttium, and Hippocoro-
nium^ in Crete. Samonium also is the eastern promontory
of the island, and a plain in the Neandris,' and in the terri-
tory of the Alexandrians (Alexandria Troas).

21. But Acusilaus, the Argive, mentions a Camillus, the

' Who were the Prasians of Rhodes I confess I cannot say. Palmer.

^ From whence Strabo does not inform us.

3 The Scholiast of Apollonius remarks that it was formerly called
Leucosia, afterwards Samos from a certain Sails, and Samothrace when
it came into possession of the Thracians. It had also the name of Dar-
dania.

* The true origin of the word, according to Casaubon, is to be found in
the Hebrew word Cabir, signifying powerful. Tobias Gutberlethus,
De mysteriis deorum Cabirotum.

^ M. Sitia. « Places unknown. ' In the plain of Troy.

190 STRABO. Casattb. 473.

son of Cabeira and Vulcan ; who had three sons, Cabeiri,
(and three daughters,) the Nymphs Cabeirides. ^

According to Pherecydes, there sprung from Apollo and
Rhetia nine Oorybantes, who lived in Samothrace ; that from
Cabeira, the daughter of Proteus and Vulcan, there were
three Cabeiri, and three Nymphs, Cabeirides, and that each
had their own sacred rites. But it was at Lemnos and Im-
bros that the Cabeiri were more especially the objects of
divine worship, and in some of the cities of the Troad ; their
names are mystical.

Herodotus ^ mentions, that there were at Memphis temples
of the Cabeiri as well as of Vulcan, which were destroyed by
Cambyses. The places where these daemons received divine
honours are uninhabited, as Corybantium in the territory
Hamaxitia belonging to the country of the Alexandrians,
near Sminthium ;^ and Corybissa in the Scepsian territory
about the river Eureis, and a village of the same name, and
the winter torrent ^thaloeis.'*

The Scepsian says, that it is probable that the Curetes and
Oorybantes are the same persons, who as youths and boys
were employed to perform the armed dance in the worship of
the mother of the gods. They were called Corybantes ^ from
their dancing gait, and butting with their head (KopvTrrovTag) ;
by the poet they were called PrfrapfiovEg,

" Come hither, you who are the best skilled Betarmones among the
Phseacians." •

Because the Corybantes are dancers, and are frantic, we call
those persons by this name whose movements are furious.

22. Some writers say that the first inhabitants of the
country at the foot of Mount Ida were called Idaean Dac-

• According to the Scholiast on Apollonius Rhod., Arg. 5, 917 per-
sons were initiated into the mysteries of the Cabeiri in Samothrace. The
Cabeiri were four in number ; Axieros, Axiokersa, Axiokersos, and Cas-
milos. Axieros corresponded to Demeter or Ceres, Axiokersa to Perse-
phone or Proserpine, Axiokersos to Hades or Pluto, and Casmilos to
Hermes or Mercury. See Ueber die Gottheiten von Samothrace, T. W.
I. Schelling, 1815 ; and the Classical Journal, vol. xiv. p. 59.

' Herod, iii. 37. ' Probably a temple of Apollo Smintheus.

* Corybissa, Eureis, and -^thaloeis are unknown.

^ They were called Curetes because they were boys, and KovprjTsg fiiv
airb Tov Kopovg elvai KuXovfievoi. Groskurd suspects these or similar
words to have followed " Corybantes."

« Od. viii. 250.

B. X. c. III. § 23. THE CURETES. 191

tyli, for the country below mountains is called the foot, and
the summits of mountains their heads ; so the separate ex-
tremities of Ida (and all are sacred to the mother of the gods)
are called Idsean Dactyli. '

But Sophocles 2 supposes, that the first five were males,
who discovered and forged iron,^ and many other things
which were useful for the purposes of life ; that these persons
had five sisters, and from their number had the name of
Dactyli. * Different persons however relate these fables dif-
ferently, connecting one uncertainty with another. They
differ both with respect to the numbers and the names of
these persons ; some of whom they call Celmis, and Damna-
meneus, and Hercules, and Acmon, who, according to some
writers, were natives of Ida, according to others, were settlers,
but all agree that they were the first workers in iron, and
upon Mount Ida. All writers suppose them to have been
magicians, attendants upon the mother of the gods, and to have
lived in Phrygia about Mount Ida. They call the Troad
Phrygia, because, after the devastation of Troy, the neigh-
bouring Phrygians became masters of the country. It is also
supposed that the Curetes and the Corybantes were descend-
ants of the Idsean Dactyli, and that they gave the name of
Idaean Dactyli to the first hundred persons who were born in
Crete ; that from these descended nine Curetes, each of whom
had ten children, who were called Idaean Dactyli.^

23. Although we are not fond of fabulous stories, yet we
have expatiated upon these, because they belong to subjects of
a theological nature.

All discussion respecting the gods requires an examination
of ancient opinions, and of fables, since the ancients expressed
enigmatically their physical notions concerning the nature of
things, and always intermixed fable with their discoveries.
It is not easy therefore to solve these enigmas exactly, but if
we lay before the reader a multitude of fabulous tales, some
consistent with each other, others which are contradictory, we

' i. e. toes. ' In a lost play, The Deaf Satyrs,

^ In hoc quoque dissentio, sapientes fuisse, qui ferri metalla et aeris

invenerunt, cum incendio silvarum adusta tellus, in summo venas jacenles

liquefacta fudisset. Seneca, Epist. 90.

* Diodorus Siculus, b, v., says that they obtained the name from being
equal in number to the ten fingers or toes (Dactyli).

* Groskurd proposes Corybantes for these latter Idsean Dactyli.

192 STRABO. Casaub. 474.

may thus with less difficulty form conjectures about the truth.
For example, mythologists probably represented the ministers
of the gods, and the gods themselves, as coursing over the
mountains, and their enthusiastic behaviour, for the same
reason that they considered the gods to be celestial beings,
and to exercise a providential care over all things, and
especially over signs and presages. Mining, hunting, and a
search after things useful for the purposes of life, appeared to
have a relation to this coursing over the mountains, but jug-
gling and magic to be connected with enthusiastic behaviour,
religious rites, and divination. Of such a nature, and con-
nected in particular with the improvement of the arts of life,
were the Dionysiac and Orphic arts. But enough of this subject.

CHAPTER IV.

1. Having described the islands about the Peloponnesus,
and other islands also, some of which are upon, and others in
front of, the Corinthian Gulf, we are next to speak of Crete, ^
(for it belongs to the Peloponnesus,) and the islands near
Crete, among which are the Cyclades and the Sporades.
Some of these are worthy of notice, others are inconsiderable.

2. At present we are to speak first of Crete.

^ The common European name Candia is unknown in the island ; the
Saracenic " Kandax," Megalo Kastron, became with the Venetian writers
Candia ; the word for a long time denoted only the principal city of the
island, which retained its ancient name in the chroniclers and in Dante,
Inferno xiv. 94. It is described by Strabo as lying between Cyrenaica
and that part of Hellas which extends from Sunium to Laconia, and
parallel in its length from W. to E. of these two points. The words
fiEXpi AaKioviKrjg may be understood either of Malea or Ttenarum ; it is
probable that this geographer extended Crete as far as Taenarum, as from
other passages in his work (ii. c. v. § 20; viii. c. v. § 1) it would appear
that he considered it and the W. points of Crete as under the same
meridian. It is still more difficult to understand the position assigned to
Crete with regard to Cyrenaica (xvii. c. iii. § 22). Strabo is far nearer
the truth, though contradicting his former statements, where he makes
Cimarus, the N.W. promontory of Crete, 700 stadia from Malea, and Cape
Sammonium 1000 stadia rom Rhodes, (ii. c. iv. § 3,) which was one of
the best ascertained points of ancient geography. Smith, v. Crete.

B. X. c. IV. § 3. CRETE. 193

According to Eudoxus, it is situated in the ^gaean sea,
but he ought not to have described its situation in that man-
ner, but have said, that it lies between Cjrenaica and the
part of Greece comprehended between Sunium and Laconia,^
extending in length in the direction from west to east, and
parallel to these countries ;^ that it is washed on the north by
the ^gaean and Cretan seas, and on the south by the African,
which joins the Egyptian sea.

The western extremity of the island is near Phalasarna ; ^
its breadth is about 200 stadia, and divided into two promon-
tories ; of which the southern is called Criu-Metopon, (or
Ram's head,) and that on the north, Cimarus.'* The eastern
promontory is Samonium,^ which does not stretch much fur-
ther towards the east than Sunium.^

3. Sosicrates, who, according to Apollodorus, had an exact
knowledge of this island, determines its length (not?)'^ to
exceed 2300 stadia, and its breadth (about 300),^ so that ac-
cording to Sosicrates the circuit of the island is not more than
5000 stadia, but Artemidorus makes it 4100. Hieronymus

' TtiQ 'EWdSoQ Trjg dirb "Eovviov fi^XP'- AaKU)viKrjg.

' Gossellin observes that the false position assigned to these countries,
and the contradiction perceptible in the measures in stadia, given by
Strabo, and above all the impossibility of reconciling them upon one given
plan, is a proof that the author consulted different histories, and different
maps, in which the distances were laid down in stadia differing in length.

^ The ruins are indicated as existing a little to the north of Hagios
Kurghianis, in the Austrian map.

* Cimarus is given in Kiepert, as the island Grabusa Agria, at the ex-
tremity of Cape Buso, and also in the Austrian map. Kramer remarks
that the promontory Cimarus is mentioned by no other author. Corycus
on the other hand is placed by Strabo below, § 5, in these parts, although
the reading is suspicious, and in b. viii. c. v. § 1, and in b. xvii. c. iii.
§ 22; but the reading again in this last reference is doubtful. Cape
Cimarus is now C. Buso or Grabusa.

* In b. ii. c. iv. § 3, it is written Salmonium, (c. Salamoni,) in which
passage Kramer has retained the spelling of the name, on the ground
that this form is to be found in Apollonius, Arg. 4, 1693, and Dionys.
Perieg. 110. Salmone in the Acts, xxvii. 7.

* C. Colonna.

' Not in the text of Kramer. Casaubon's conjecture.

* The words of the text are, TrXarsi dt vtto to fiEyi9og, which Meineke
translates, " Its width is not in proportion to its length." Kramer says
that the preposition vtto suggests the omission of the words TtrpaKon'nov
or TpiaKomojv ttov, and that the words r. fi. are probably introduced
from the margin, and are otherwise inadmissible.

VOL. II. O

194 STRABO. Casaub. 475.

says, that its length is 2000 stadia, and its breadth irregular,
and that the circuit would exceed the number of stadia as-
signed by Artemidorus. Throughout one-third of its length,
(beginning from the western parts, the island is of a toler-
able width). ^ Then there is an isthmus of about 100 stadia,
on the northern shore of which is a settlement, called Amphi-
malla ; ^ on the southern shore is Phoenix,^ belonging to the
Lampeis.

The greatest breadth is in the middle of the island.

Here again the shores approach, and form an isthmus
narrower than the former, of about 60 stadia in extent, reckon-
ing from Minoa,'* in the district of the Lyctii,^ to Thera-
pytna,^ and the African sea. The city is on the bay. The
shores then terminate in a pointed promontory, the Samonium,
looking towards ^gypt and the islands of the Rhodians.'^

4. The island is mountainous and woody, but has fertile
valleys.

The mountains towards the west are called Leuca, or the
White Mountains,® not inferior in height to the Taygetum,^
and extending in length about 300 stadia. They form a
ridge, which terminates at the narrow parts (the isthmus).
In the middle of the island, in the widest part, is (Ida),^^ the
highest of the mountains tliere. Its compass is about 600
stadia. It is surrounded by the principal cities. There are
other mountains equal in height to the White Mountains, some
of which terminate on the south, others towards the east.

5. From the Cyrenaean^^ territory to Criu-metopon^^ is a

* It is impossible to say what words should fill up the hiatus in the
text, but probably something to this effect, oltto tCjv ecrirfplojv fiepuiv
dp^afiEvoiQ ri vrjcrog TrXarad tan. Kramer. Groskurd proposes ») vfjcrog
ai(pvidi(t)g (rrevoxopu, the island suddenly narrows.

2 On the bay of Armiro.

' Castel Franco. Acts of Apostles, xxvii. 12.

* Porto Trano. At the bottom of the bay of Mirabel.

* Near Lytto. * Girapetra.

^ By the islands of the Rhodians are meant Case, Nisari, Scarpanto, &c.

^ Aspra-vuna, or Sfakia. ^ Mt. Penta-Dactylon in the Morea.

^0 Psiloriti.

" From what point in the Cyrenaica is not said. From b. viii. c. iii.
§ 1, it would appear to be Phycus, (Ras al Sem,) but from b. xvii. c. iii.
§ 20, it would seem to be Apollonias, (Marsa-susa.) the maritime arsenal
of the Cyrenseans, situated at about 170 stadia to the east of Phycus, and
80 stadia to the west of Gyrene.

'2 C. Crio

B. X. c. IV. § 6, 7. CRETE. 195

voyage of two days and nights. From Cimarus [to Malea]
are 700 stadia.^ In the midway is Cythera.^ From the pro-
montory Samonium^ to ^gypt a ship sails in four days and
nights, but, according to other writers, in three. Some say
that it is a voyage of 5000 stadia ; others, of still less than
this. According to Eratosthenes, the distance from Cyrenaica
to Criu-Metopon is 2000 stadia, and thence to Peloponnesus
less than [1000].^

6. One language is intermixed with another, says the poet ;
there are in Crete,

" Achaei, the brave Eteocretans, Cydones, Dorians divided into three
bands,^ and the divine Pelasgi." ^

Of these people, says Staphylus, the Dorians occupy the
eastern parts of the island, Cydonians the western, Eteocretans
the southern, to whom Prasus, a small town, belonged, where
is the temple of the Dictsean Jupiter ; the other nations, being
more powerful, inhabited the plains. It is probable that the
Eteocretans'^ and Cydonians were aboriginal inhabitants, and
that the others were foreigners, who Andron says came from
Thessaly, formerly called Doris, but now Hestiaeotis, from
which country he says the Dorians, who were settled about
Parnassus, migrated, and founded Erineum, Boeum, and Cy-
tinium, whence they are called by the poet Trichaices, or tri-
partite. But the account of Andron is not generally admitted,
who represents the Tetrapolis Doris as composed of three
cities, and the metropolis of the Dorians as a colony of Thes-
salians. The epithet Trichaices^ is understood to be derived
either from their wearing a triple crest,^ or from having crests
of hair.^°

7. There are many cities in Crete, but the largest and
most distinguished are Cnossus,^^ Gortyna,^^ Cydonia.'^ Both
Homer and later writers celebrate Cnossus^^ above the rest,

* Of 700 stadia to a degree, Gossellin. ' Cerigo.

' The distance from Samonium (Cape Salamone) to Alexandria, in a
Straight line, is about 5500 stadia of 1111^ to the degree. Gossellin.

* Gossellin's conjecture, for the number is wanting in the text.

* TpixaiKiQ. 6 Q(j xix. 175. ^ So also Diod. Sic. b. v.
' rpixaiKag. » TpiXoplag, '" Tpi\ivovg.

" The ruins are situated at Makro Teikhos, to the south-east of Can-
dia, the modern capital.

'2 II. ii. 646; Od. xix. 178. Hagius Dheka. Pashley.
" Near Jerami, in the Austrian map. Pashley places it at Khania.
o 2

196 STRABO. Casaitb. 476.

calling it vast, and the palace of Minos. It maintained its
pre-eminence for a long period. It afterwards lost its ascend-
ency, and was deprived of many of its customs and privi-
leges. The superiority was transferred to Gortyna and Lyc-
tus.^ But it afterwards recovered its ancient rank of the
capital city. Cnossus lies in a plain, with its ancient circum-
ference of 30 stadia, between the Lyctian and Gortynian
territory ; [distant] 200 stadia from Gortyna, and from Lyt-
tus 120, which the poet^ calls Lyctus. Cnossus is at the dis-
tance of 25 stadia from the northern sea ; Gortyna 90, and
Lyctus 80, stadia from the African sea. Cnossus has a marine
arsenal, Heracleium.^

8. Minos, it is said, used as an arsenal Amnisus,"* where is
a temple of Eileithyia. Cnossus formerly had the name of
Caeratus, which is the name of the. river ^ which runs beside it.

Mino»^ is regarded as an excellent legislator, and the first
who possessed the sovereignty of the sea. He divided the
island into three portions, in each of which he built a city ;
Cnossus ****** *^ opposite to Peloponnesus, which
lies toward the north.

According to Ephorus, Minos was an imitator of Rhada-
manthus, an ancient personage, and a most just man. He had
the same name as his brother, who appears to have been the
first to civilize the island by laws and institutions, by founding
cities, and by establishing forms of government. He pre-
tended to receive from tJupiter the decrees which he promul-
gated. It was probably in imitation of Rhadamanthus that
Minos went up to the cave of Jupiter, at intervals of nine
years, and brought from thence a set of ordinances, which he
said were the commands of Jove ; for which reason the poet
thus expresses himself;

*' There reigned Minos, who every ninth year conversed with the great
Jupiter." ^

• Lytto. 2 II. ii. 647.

3 Cartero, a maritime town on the river of the same name.

* At the mouth of the Aposelemi. * Now the Cartero.

« Pausanias, b. ix. c. 11, says that the ships of Minos were unprovided
•with sails, which were the subsequent invention of Deedalus.

' Groskurd proposes to supply the hiatus in the text thus : Cnossus
[towards the north, inclining to the ^gaean sea, Ph£Estus turned towards
the south and the African sea, Cydonia in the western part of the island]
opposite. * Od. xix. 178.

B. X. c. IV. § 9, 10. CRETE. 197

Such is the statement of Ephorus ; the ancients on the other
hand give a different account, and say that he was tyrannical
and violent, and an exactor of tribute, and speak in the strain
of tragedy about the Minotaur, the Labyrinth, and the adven-
tures of Theseus and Dsedalus.

9. It is difficult to determine which is right. There is
another story also not generally received ; some persons af-
firming that Minos was a foreigner, others that he was a
native of the island. Homer seems to support the latter
opinion, when he says, that

" Minos, the guardian of Crete, was the first offspring of Jupiter." '

It is generally admitted with regard to Crete that in an-
cient times it was governed by good laws, and induced the
wisest of the Greeks to imitate its form of government, and
particularly the Lacedaemonians, as Plato shows in his " Laws,"
and Ephorus has described in his work " Europe." After-
wards there was a change in the government, and for the
most part for the worse. For the Tyrrheni, who chiefly in-
fested our sea, were followed by the Cretans, who succeeded
to the haunts and piratical practices of the former people, and
these again afterwards were subject to the devastations of
the Cilicians. But the Romans destroyed them all after the
conquest of Crete,^ and demolished the piratical strongholds
of the Cilicians. At present Cnossus has even a colony of
Romans.

10. So much then respecting Cnossus, a city to which I
am no stranger ; but owing to the condition of human affairs,
their vicissitudes and accidents, the connexion and inter-
course that subsisted between ourselves and the city is at an
end. Which may be thus explained. Dorylaiis, a military
tactician, a friend of Mithridates Euergetes, was appointed,
on account of his experience in military affairs, to levy a body
of foreigners, and was frequently in Greece and Thrace, and
often in the company of persons who came from Crete, before
the Romans were in possession of the island. A great mul-
titude of mercenary soldiers was collected there, from whom

1 II. xiii. 450.

* The Cretan war was conducted by Q. Metellus, proconsul, Avho from
thence obtained the cognomen of Creticus.

198 STRABO. Casaub. 478.

even the bands of pirates were recruited. During the stay
of Dorylaiis in the island, a war happened to break out be-
tween the Cnossians and the Gortynians. He was appointed
general by the Cnossians, and having finished the war speed-
ily and successfully, he obtained the highest honours. A
short time afterwards, being informed that Euergetes had been
treacherously put to death by his courtiers at Sinope, and
that he was succeeded in the government by his wife and
children, he abandoned everything there, remained at Cnos-
sus, and married a Macedonian woman of the name of Ste-
rope, by whom he had two sons, Lagetas and Stratarchas,
(the latter I myself saw when in extreme old age,) and one
daughter. Of the two sons of Euergetes, he who was sur-
named Eupator succeeded to the throne when he was eleven
years of age ; Dorylaiis, the son of Philetaerus, was his foster-
brother. Philetserus was the brother of Dorylaiis the Tac-
tician. The king had been so much pleased with his intimacy
with Dorylaiis when they lived together as children, that on
attaining manhood he not only promoted Dorylaiis to the high-
est honours, but extended his regard to his relations and
sent for them from Cnossus. At this time Lagetas and his
brother had lost their father, and were themselves grown up
to manhood. They quitted Cnossus, and came to Mithridates.
My mother's mother was the daughter of Lagetas. While
he enjoyed prosperity, they also prospered ; but upon his
downfal (for he was detected in attempting to transfer the
kingdom to the Eomans with a view to his own appointment
to the sovereignty) the affairs of Cnossus were involved in his
ruin and disgrace ; and all intercourse with the Cnossians,
who themselves had experienced innumerable vicissitudes of
fortune, was suspended.

So much then respecting Cnossus.

11. After Cnossus, the city Gortyna seems to have held
the second place in rank and power. For when these cities
acted in concert they held in subjection all the rest of the in-
habitants, and when they were at variance there was discord
throughout the island ; and whichever party Cydonia espoused,
to them she was a most important accession.

The city of the Gortynians lies in a plain, and was perhaps
anciently protected by a wall, as Homer also intimates,

B. X. c. IV. § 12. CRETE. 199

** and Gortyna, a walled city ; " •
it lost afterwards its walls, which were destroyed from their
foundation, and it has remained ever since without walls ; for
Ptolemy Philopator, who began to build a wall, proceeded with
it to the distance only of about 8 stadia. Formerly the building
occupied a considerable compass, extending nearly 50 stadia.
It is distant from the African sea, and from Leben its mart,
90 stadia. It has also another arsenal, Matalum.^ It is dis-
tant from that 130 stadia. The river Lethaeus^ flows through
the whole of the city.

12. Leucocomas and Euxynthetus his erastes (or lover),
whom Theophrastus mentions in his discourse on Love, were
natives of Leben.^ One of the tasks enjoined Euxynthetus
by Leucocomas was this, according to Theophrastus, to
bring him his dog from Prasus.^ The Prasii border upon
the Lebenii at the distance of 60 stadia from the sea, and
from Gortyn 180. We have said that Prasus was subject to
the Eteocretans, and that the temple of the Dictsean Jupiter
was there. For Dicte^ is near ; not, as Aratus'^ alleges, near
Ida ; since Dicte is distant 1000 stadia from Mount Ida, and
situated at that distance from it towards the rising sun ; and
100 stadia from the promontory Samonium. Prasus was
situated between the promontory Samonium, and the Cherrho-
nesus, at the distance of 60 stadia from the sea. It was razed
by the Hierapytnii. He says, too, that Callimachus® is not
right in asserting that Britomartis, in her escape from the
violence offered by Minos, leaped from Dicte among the nets
of the fishermen {^Iktvo), and that hence she had the name of
Dictynna from the Cydoniatae, and the mountain that of

' II. ii. 646. ' Letima or Matala, Cape Theodosia.

' The Maloniti or Messara. * On C. Lionda.

' Strabo must have confounded two totally distinct cities, (Priansus
and Prasus,) when he spoke of them under a common name, and assigned
them a single situation, both close to Mount Dikte, and at the same time
continuous with the Lebenians, whose city was three days' journey from
the mountain. Pashley, Travels in Crete, vol. i. p. 290. Kramer does not
agree with Pashley, and, until further information shall be obtained, rests
upon the authority of Boeckh, C. I. No. 2556, who affirms that there is
some doubt about the name Priansus, which is only found on coins and
inscriptions; both Hoeck (v. Kreta I. p. 413) and Boeckh (C. I. ii. p. 405)
consider Priansus and Prasus as the same place.

^ M. Silia. 7 ph^n. 33.

* Callim. Hymn to Diana, 195.

200 STRABO. Casattb. 479.

Dicte. For Cydonia is not at all situated in the neighbour-
hood of these places, but lies at the western extremity of the
island. The mountain Tityrus ^ belongs to the Cydonian terri-
tory ; upon it is situated a temple, not called Dictsean, but
Dictynnsean.

13. Cydonia is situated on the sea, fronting Laconia, at aij
equal distance from both Cnossus and Gortyn, about 800
stadia, and from Aptera 80, and from the sea in this quarter
40 stadia. Cisainus^ is the naval arsenal of Aptera.^ The
Polyrrhenii border upon the Cydoniatae towards the west ; in
their territory is the temple of Dictynna. They are at the
distance of about 30 stadia from the sea, and 60 from Phala-
sarna. Formerly they lived in villages ; then Achaeans and
Laconians settled there together, and fortified with a wall a
strong site fronting the south.

14. Of the three cities founded by Minos, the last, which
was Phgestus,"* was razed by the Gortynians ; it was at the
distance of 60 stadia from Gortyn, 20 from the sea, and from
Matalum, the arsenal, 40 stadia. They who razed the city
possess the territory. Rhytium also together with Phsestus
belongs to the Gortynians,

"both Phajstus aAd Rhytium."*
Epimenides, who performed lustrations by the means of his
poetry, is said to have been a native of Phaestus. Olyssa
(Lisses ?) also belonged to the territory of Phaestus.

Cherrhonesus,® as it is called, is the arsenal of Lyttus or
(Lyctus), which we have before mentioned ; on the former is
the temple of Britomartis.

Miletus and Lycastus, the cities which were enumerated
together with Lyctus, no longer exist ; but the territory, after
they had razed the city (Lyctus), was partitioned among
Lyctians and Cnossians.

15. As the poet in one place speaks of Crete as having a
hundred, and in another ninety, cities, Ephorus says, that ten
were founded in later times after the Trojan war by the Dori-

* Tityrus is the ridge of mountains which terminates in Cape Spada.

* Kisamos.

' See Pashley, Travels in Crete, vol. i. c. 4, who places Aptera at
Palaeocastron, on the south of the bay of Siedh and Polyrrhenia, at the
Palaeocastron, to the south of the Gulf of Kisamos.

* Hodyitra. ^ 11. ii. 648. ^ Episcopiano.

B. X. c. IV. § 16. CRETE. 201

ans, who accompanied Althoemenes the Argive, and that
hence Ulysses speaks of its ninety cities. This account is
probable. But others say, that the ten were razed by the
enemies of Idomeneus ; but the poet does not say that Crete
had a hundred cities at the time of the Trojan war, but in his
own age, for he speaks in his own person ; but if the words
had been those of some person then living, as those in the
Odyssey, where Ulysses says, Crete had ninety cities, they
might have been properly understood in this manner. But
even if we admit this, the subsequent verses will not be ex-
empt from objection. For neither at the time of the expe-
dition, nor after the return of Idomeneus, is it probable that
these cities were destroyed by his enemies, for the poet says,

*' but Idomeneus brought back all his companions who had survived the
war to Crete ; the sea had not deprived him of any of them ; " •

for he would have mentioned such a misfortune. Ulysses in-
deed might not have been acquainted with the destruction of
these cities, for he had not had any intercourse with any of the
Greeks either during or after his wanderings ; but (Nestor),
who had been the companion of Idomeneus in the expedition
and in his escape from shipwreck, could not be ignorant of
what had happened at home during the expedition and before
his return. But he must certainly have been aware of what
occurred after his return. For if he and all his companions
escaped, he returned so powerful that their enemies were not
in a position to deprive them of ten cities.

Such then is the general description of the country of Crete.

16. With respect to the form of government, which Epho-
rus has described at large, it will be sufficient to give a cur-
sory account of the principal parts. The law-giver, says
Ephorus, seems to lay, as the foundation of his constitution,
the greatest good that states can enjoy, namely, liberty ; for it
is this alone which makes the property of every kind which
a man possesses his own ; in a state of slavery it belongs to
the governor, and not to the governed. The liberty also
which men enjoy must be guarded. Unanimity ensues, when
the dissensions that arise from covetousness and luxury ^ are

» Od. iii. 191.

2 Sordid avarice and covetousness have taken such hold upon them, that
among the Cretans alone, of all nations, nothing in the form of gain is
considered dishonourable. Polybius, b. vi.

202 STRABO Casaub. 481.

removed. Now where all live temperately and frugally, nei-
ther envy, nor injuries, nor hatred have place among equals.
Whence the young were enjoined to repair to the Agelae, and
those of mature age to assemble at the Syssitia, or common
meals, called Andreia, in order that the poorer sort, who were
fed at the public charge, might partake of the same fare as
the rich.

With a view that courage, and not fear, should predominate,
they were accustomed from childhood to the use of arms, and
to endure fatigue. Hence they disregarded heat and cold,
rugged and steep roads, blows received in gymnastic exer-
cises and in set battles.

They practised archery, and the dance in armour, which
the Curetes first invented, and was afterwards perfected by
Pyrrhichus, and called after him Pyrrhiche. Hence even their
sports were not without their use in their training for war.
With the same intention they used the Cretan measures in
their songs ; the tones of these measures are extremely loud ;
they were invented by Thales, to whom are ascribed the
paeans and other native songs and many of their wsages.
They adopted a military dress also, and shoes, and considered
armour as the most valuable of all presents.

17. Some, he says, alleged that many of the institutions
supposed to be Cretan were of Lacedaemonian origin ; but the
truth is, they were invented by the former, but perfected by the
Spartans. The Cretans, when their cities, and particularly
Cnossus, were ravaged, neglected military affairs, but some
usages were more observed by the Lyttii and Gortynii, and
some other small cities, than by the Cnossians. Those per-
sons, who maintain the priority of the Laconian institutions,
adduce as evidence of this those of the Lyttii, because as colon-
ists they would retain the customs of the parent state. Other-
wise, it would be absurd for those, who lived under a better
form of constitution and government, to be imitators of a
worse. But this is not correct. For we ought not to form
conjectures respecting the ancient from the present state of
things, for each has undergone contrary changes. The Cre-
tans were formerly powerful at sea, so that it was a pro-
verbial saying addressed to those who pretended to be ignor-
ant of what they knew, " a Cretan, and not know the sea ;"
but at present they have abandoned nautical afiairs.

B. X. c. IV. § 18, 19. CRETE. 203

Nor did it follow necessarily that, because there were some
cities in Crete colonized by Spartans, they should continue
to observe Spartan usages, since many of the cities of colonists
do not preserve the customs of the mother country ; and there
are many cities in Crete, the inhabitants of which are not
colonists, and yet have the same usages as those that have re-
ceived colonies.

18. Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator, he says, was five
generations later than Althaemenes, who conducted the colony
into Crete. He is said by historians to have been the son of
Cissus, who founded Argos ^ about the same time that Procles
was engaged in establishing a colony at Sparta. It is also
generally admitted that Lycurgus was the sixth in descent
from Procles.2 Copies do not precede the models, nor mo-
dern precede ancient things. The usual kind of dancing
practised among the Lacedaemonians, the measures, and the
pasans sung according to a certain mood, and many other
usages, are called among them Cretan, as if they came from
Crete. But among the ancient customs, those relative to the
administration of the state have the same designations as in
Crete,^ as the council of Gerontes'* and that of the Knights,^
except that in Crete the knights had horses ; whence it is
conjectured, that the council of Knights in Crete is more
ancient, since the origin of the appellation is preserved. But
the Spartan knight did not keep a horse. They who per-
form the same functions as the Cosmi hi Crete, have the dif-
ferent title of Ephori [in Sparta]. The Syssitia, or common
meal, is even at present called Andreia among the Cretans ;
but among the Spartans they did not continue to call it by its
former name, as it is found in the poet Alcman ;

" In festivals and in joyous assemblies of the Andreia, it is lit to begin
the paean in honour of the guests."

19. The occasion of the journey of Lycurgus to Crete is
said by the inhabitants to be as follows. The elder brother
of Lycurgus was Polydectes, who, at his death, left his wife
pregnant. Lycurgus reigned in place of his brother till the

• His father, Temenus, was the founder of Argos. See b. viii.
2 There is, however, diversity of opinions on the subject.

^ Aristotle, Politics, b. ii. c. 10, where he compares the Cretan with
the Lacedaemonian constitution.

* tCjv yEpovTtov. ^ iTnrscjv.

204 STRABO. Casaub. 483.

birth of a son. He then became the guardian of the child,
who was heir to the kingdom. Some one said to him in-
sultingly, he was sure Lycurgus would be king. Suspecting
that by this speech he might be accused of contriving a plot
against the child, and fearing that, if the child should die by
any accident, his enemies might impute its death to him, he
departed to Crete. This is said to have been the cause of his
journey. Upon his arrival in Crete he became acquainted with
Thales, the lyric poet and legislator. He learnt from this per-
son the plan adopted by Rhadamanthus in former times, and
afterwards by Minos in promulgating their laws, so as to pro-
cure a belief that they proceeded from Jupiter. He was also
in ^gypt, and obtained information respecting the laws and
customs of that country.* According to some writers, he met
at Chios with Homer, who was living there, and then re-
turned to his own country, where he found Charilaus, the son
of his brother Polydectes, upon the throne. He then began to
frame laws, repairing to the god at Delphi, and bringing thence
ordinances, as Minos brought his from the cave of Jupiter.^
The greater part of these ordinances were similar to those of
Minos.

20. The following are the principal of the laws of Crete,
which Ephorus has given in detail.

All the Cretans, who are selected at the same time from
the troop (ayt'Xr?) of youths, are compelled to marry at once.
They do not however take the young women whom they
have married immediately to their homes, until they are quali-
fied to administer household affairs.

The woman's dower, if she has brothers, is half of the bro-
ther's portion.

The children are taught to read, to chaunt songs taken
from the laws, and some kinds of music.

While they are still very young they are taken to the Sys-
sitia, called Andreia. They sit on the ground, eating their food
together, dressed in mean garments, which are not changed
in winter or summer. They wait upon themselves and on the
men. Both those of the same and those of different messes
have battles with one another. A trainer of boys presides
over each Andreion. As they grow older they are formed into

' According to Plutarch, with the poems of Homer.
2 Herod, i. 65.

B. X. c. IV. § 21. CRETE. 205

('AytXat) or troops of youths. The most illustrious and power-
ful of the youths form Agelae, each individual assembling to-
gether as many as he can collect. The governor of the troop
is generally the father of the youth who has assembled them
together, and has the power of taking them to hunt and to
exercise themselves in running, and of punishing the disobe-
dient. They are maintained at the public charge.

On certain set days troop encounters troop, marching in
time to the sound of the pipe and lyre, as is their custom in
actual war. They inflict blows, some with the hand, and
some even with iron weapons.

21. They have a peculiar custom with respect to their at-
tachments. They do not influence the objects of their love
by persuasion, but have recourse to violent abduction. The
lover apprizes the friends of the youth, three or more days
beforehand, of his intention to carry off" the object of his affec-
tion. It is reckoned a most base act to conceal the youth, or
not to permit him to walk about as usual, since it would be
an acknowledgment that the youth was unworthy of such a
lover. But if they are informed that the ravisher is equal or
superior in rank, or other circumstances, to the youth, they
pursue and oppose the former slightly, merely in conformity
with the custom. They then willingly allow him to carry oif
the youth. If however he is an unworthy person, they take
the youth from him. This show of resistance does not end,
till the youth is received into the Andreium to which the
ravisher belongs. They do not regard as an object of affec-
tion a youth exceedingly handsome, but him who is distin-
guished for courage and modesty. The lover makes the youth
presents, and takes him away to whatever place he likes.
The persons present at the abduction accompany them, and
having passed two months in feasting, and in the chase, (for
it is not permitted to detain the youth longer,) they return to
the city. The youth is dismissed with presents, which con-
sist of a military dress, an ox, and a drinking cup ; the last
are prescribed by law, and besides these many other very
costly gifts, so that the friends contribute each their share in
order to diminish the expense.

The youth sacrifices the ox to Jupiter, and entertains at a
feast those who came down with him from the mountains.
He then declares concerning the intercourse with the lover.

206 STRABO. Casaub. 484.

whether it took place with his consent or not, since the law
allows him, if any violence is used in the abduction, to insist
upon redress, and set him free from his engagement with the
lover. But for the beautiful and high-born not to have
lovers is disgraceful, since this neglect would be attributed to
a bad disposition.

The parastathentes, for this is the name which they give
to those youths who have been carried away, enjoy certain
honours. At races and at festivals they have the principal
places. They are permitted to wear the stole, which distin-
guishes them from other persons, and which has been pre-
sented to them by their lovers ; and not only at that time, but
in mature age, they appear in a distinctive dress, by which
each individual is recognised as Kleinos, for this name is
given to the object of their attachment, and that of Philetor
to the lov^r.

These then are the usages respecting attachments.

22. They elect ten Archons. On matters of highest mo-
ment they have recourse to the counsel of the Gerontes, as
they are called. They admit into this council those who
have been thought worthy of the office of Cosmi, and who
were otherwise persons of tried worth.

I considered the form of government among the Cretans as
worthy of description, on account both of its peculiarity and
its fame. Few of these institutions are now in existence, and
the administration of affairs is chiefly conducted according to
the orders of the Romans, as is the case also in their other
provinces.

CHAPTER V.

1. The islands about Crete are Thera,^ the capital of the
Cyrenseans, and a colony of the Lacedasmonians ; and near
Thera is Anaphe,^ in which is the temple of Apollo JEgletes.
Callimachus speaks of it in one place, thus,

' Anciently Calliste, Herod., now Santorino, a corruption of Santa
Irene, to whom it was dedicated.
' Nanphio, or Anafi.

B. X. c. V. § 2. CRETE. 207

" And iEglete Anaphe, close to the Lacedaemonian Thera ; "
and in another, he mentions Thera only,

"Mother of my country, celebrated for its fine breed of horses."

Thera is a long island, about 200 stadia in circumference. It
lies opposite to the island Dia,^ towards the Cnossian Hera-
cleium. It is distant about 700 stadia from Crete. Near it
are Anaphe and Therasia.^ The little island los^ is distant
from the latter about 100 stadia. Here according to some
authors the poet Homer was buried.^ In going from los to-
wards the west are Sicenus ^ and Lagusa,^ and Pholegandrus,'^
which Aratus calls the iron island, on account of its rocks.
Near these islands is Cimolus,^ whence is obtained the Cimo-
lian earth. From Cimolus Siphnus^ is visible. To this
island is applied the proverb, " a Siphnian bone (astragalus),"
on account of its insignificance. Still nearer, both to Cimo-
lus and Crete, is Melos,^^ more considerable than these. It is
distant from the Hermionic promontory, the Scyllaeum,^^ 700
stadia, and nearly as many from the Dictynnaean promontory.
The Athenians formerly despatched an army to Melos,^^ and
put to death the inhabitants from youth upwards.

These islands are situated in the Cretan sea. Delos,^^ the
Cyclades about it, and the Sporades adjacent to these, belong
rather to the ^g£ean gea. To the Sporades also are to be re-
ferred the islands about Crete, which I have already men-
tioned.

2. The city of Delos is in a plain. Delos contains the tem-
ple of Apollo, and the Latoum, or temple of Latona. The
Cynthus,*^ a naked and rugged mountain, overhangs the city.

^ Standia. ^ Therasia, on the west of Santorino.

' Nio. * According to Herodotus, in the Life of Homer.

^ Sikino, anciently CEnoe. Pliny iv. 12.

• Cardiodissa, or Cardiana. ' Policandro.

* Argentiere. Cretae plura genera. Ex iis Cimoliae duo ad medicos
pertinentia, candidum et ad purpurissimum inclinans. Pliny, b. v. c. 17.
Cretosaque rura Cimoli. Ovid. Met. vii. 464. But from Aristophanes,
the Frogs, it would appear to have been a kind of fullers' earth.

® Siphanto, anciently also Meropia and Acis. There were once gold
and silver mines in it, which were destroyed by inundation. There is
also another proverb, which alluded to its poverty, " a Siphnian pledge,"
^i(pviog appajSojv. Herodotus speaks of its being once the most wealthy
of the islands, iii, 57.

'0 Milo. " Cape Skylli. « Thucyd. b. v. c. lib, 116.

" Dhiles. " Thermia. Hence Apollo Cynthius.

208 STRABO. Casatjb. 485.

The In opus, ^ not a large river, for the island is small, flows
through it. Anciently, even from the heroic times, this
island has been held in veneration on account of the divinities
worshipped here. Here, according to the fable, Latona was
relieved from the pains of labour, and gave birth to Apollo
and Diana.

*' Before this time," (says Pindar,'^) " Delos was carried about by the
waves, and by winds blowing from every quarter, but when the daughter
of Coeus set her foot upon it, who was then suffering the sharp pangs of
approaching child-birth, at that instant four upright columns, resting on
adamant, sprang from the depths of the earth and retained it fast on the
rugged rock ; there she brought forth, and beheld her happy offspring."

The islands lying about it, called Cyclades, gave it celebrity,
since they were in the habit of sending at the public charge,
as a testimony of respect, sacred delegates, (Theori,) sacrifices,
and bands of virgins ; they also repaired thither in great
multitudes to celebrate festivals.^

3. Originally, there were said to be twelve Cyclades, but
many others were added to them. Artemidorus enumerates
(fifteen ?) where he is speaking of the island Helena,'* and
of which he says that it extends from Thoricus ^ to Sunium,^
and is about 60 stadia in length ; it is from this island, he
says, the Cyclades, as they are called, begin. He names
Ceos,^ as the nearest island to Helena, and next to this Cyth-
nus, Seriphus,^ Melos, Siphnus, Cimolus, Prepesinthus,^ Olia-
rus,^^ and besides these Pares,'' Naxos,'^ Syros,'^ Myconus,''*
Tenos,'^ Andros,'® Gyarus.''^ The rest I consider as belong-
ing to the Twelve, but not Prepesinthus, Oliarus, and Gyarus.
When I put in at the latter island I found a small village in-
habited by fishermen. When we left it we took in a fisher-
man, deputed from the inhabitants to go to Caesar, who was
at Corinth on his way to celebrate his triumph after the vic-
tory at Actium.'* He told his fellow-passengers, that he was

* Mentioned in b. vi. c. ii. § 4, as connected with the Nile. Bryant,
Mytho. V. i. p. 206, derives the name from Ain Opus, The fountain of
the Serpent, i. e. Python.

^ Boeckh, Fragm. Pind. 58. ii. 2, p. 587.

^ Thucyd. iii. 104. * Isola Longa, or Macronisi.

* It was situated in the bay of Mandri. « C. Colonna. ' Zia.
^ Serpho. * Polino. *" Antiparos. " Bara. '^ Naxia.
" Syra. "« Myconi. '* Tino. »« Andro.

" Jura. Pliny, viii. 29, says the inhabitants were driven from the island
by mice. '* b. c. 31.

B. X. c. V. § 4, 0. THE CYCLADES. 209

deputed to apply for an abatement of the tribute, for they
were required to pay 150 drachmae, when it was with diffi-
culty they could pay 100.

Aratus,* in his Details, intimates how poor they were ;

" 0 Latona, thou art shortly going to pass by me [an insignificant is-
land'] like to the iron-bound Pholegandrus, or to unhappy Gyarus.

4. Although Delos^ was so famous, yet it became still more
so, and flourished after the destruction of Corinth by the
Romans.^ For the merchants resorted thither, induced by
the immunities of the temple, and the convenience of its har-
bour. It lies favourably'* for those who are sailing from
Italy and Greece to Asia. The general festival held there
serves the purposes of commerce, and the Romans particularly
I'requented it even before the destruction of Corinth.^ The
Athenians, after having taken the island, paid equal attention
to the aifairs both of religion and of commerce. But the
generals^ of Mithridates, and the tyrant, "^ who had occasioned
the defection of (Athens from the Romans), ravaged it en-
tirely. The Romans received the island in a desolate state
on the departure of the king to his own country ; and it has
continued in an impoverished condition to the present time.^
The Athenians are now in possession of it.

o. Rheneia^ is a small desert island 4 stadia from Delos,
where are the sepulchral monuments of the Delians. For it
is not permitted to bury the dead in Delos, nor to burn a

^ The title (which has been much questioned by critics) of this lost
work of Aratus appears to have been, from this passage, Td Kara. XtirTov,
which Latin translators have rendered, Minuta, or Details. Casaubon is
of opinion that it is the same as referred to by Callimachus, under the
title 'Pr}(TtiQ XsTrrai, Clever Sayings. Ernest, ad Callim. Ep. 29. T. 1. p.
333. The translation of the lines quoted follows the corrections of Coray.

2 In the middle of the Cyclades, and by far the most remarkable, is
Delos, celebrated for the temple of Apollo, and for its commerce. Pliny
iv. 12.

3 Under L. Mummius, b. c. 146. * Thucyd. i. 36.

5 Kai oTe avvtarrfKH r) KopivQog. * Archelaiis and Metrophanes.

7 Aristion, b. c. 87.

8 Pausanias, viii. 33, § 2, (writing in the time of Hadrian,) says of
Delos, that with the exception of the persons who came from Athens,
for the purpose of protecting the temple and to perform the Delian cere-
monies, it was deserted,

^ Rhena, called also Dhiles ; but it is the largest of the two islands now
bearing that name. Pliny says it was anciently called also Celadussa,
from the noise of the waves, KtKaStiv.

VOL. II. p

210 STRABO. Casatjb. 486.

dead body there. It is not permitted even to keep a dog in
Delos.

Formerly it had the name of Ortygia.^

6. Ceos'^ once contained lour cities. Two remain, lulls
and Carthae, to -which the inhabitants of the others were
transferred ; those of Poeeessa to Carthae, and those of Cores-
sia to lulls. Simonides the lyric poet, and Bacchylides his
nephew, and after their times Erasistratus the physician, and
Ariston the Peripatetic philosopher, the imitator of Bion,^ the
Borysthenite, were natives of this city.

There was an ancient law among these people, mentioned
by Menander.

" Phanias, that is a good law of the Ceans ; who cannot Hve comfortably
(or well), let him not live miserably (or ill)."*

For the law, it seems, ordained that those above sixty years
old should be compelled to drink hemlock, in order that there
might be sufficient food for the rest. It is said that once
when they were besieged by the Athenians, a decree was
passed to the effect that the oldest persons, fixing the age,
sliould be put to death, and that the besiegers retired in con-
sequence.

The city lies on a mountain, at a distance from the sea of
about 25 stadia. Its arsenal is the place on which Coressia
was built, which does not contain the population even of a
village. Near the Coressian territory and Poeeessa is a tem-
ple of Apollo Sminthius. But between the temple and the
ruins of Poeeessa is the temple of Minerva Nedusia, built by
Nestor, on his return from Troy. The river Elixus runs
around the territory of Coressia.

7. After Ceos are Naxos^ and Andros,^ considerable
islands, and Paros, the birth-place of the poet Archilochus.
Thasos'*' was founded by Parians, and Parium,^ a city in the
Propontis. In this last place there is said to be an altar
worthy of notice, each of whose sides is a stadium in length.

* Virg. ^n. ill. 124, Linquimus Ortygiae portus pelagoque volamus.
- Zia. Pinguia Caeae,

Ter centum nivei tondent dumeta juvenci.

Virg. Geor. i. 14, 15.
^ Of Olbia or Olbiopolis, on the Borysthenes or Bog.

* 6 jxri Swafxevog i^fjv KaXaii; ov Z,y kukuiq.

* Naxia. ^ Audro. ^ Taschos. ^ Kemars.

B. X. c. V. § 8—12. THE CYCLADES. 211

In Paros is obtained the Parian marble, the best adapted for
statuary work. ^

8. Here also is Syros, (the first syllable is long,) where
Pherecydes the son of Babys was born. The Athenian
Pherecydes is younger than the latter person. The poet seems
to have mentioned this island under the name of Syria ;

" above Ortygia is an island called Syria." ^

9. Myconus ^ is an island beneath which, according to the
mythologists, lie the last of the giants, destroyed by Hercules ;
whence the proverb, " all under one Myconus," applied to
persons who collect under one title things that are disjoined
by nature. Some also call bald persons Mioonians, because
baldness is frequent among the inhabitants of the island."*

10. Seriphos^ is the island where is laid the scene of the
fable of Dictys, who drew to land in his net the chest in
which were enclosed Perseus and his mother Danae, who
were thrown into the sea by order of Acrisius, the father
of Danae. There it is said Perseus was brought up, and
to this island he brought the head of the Gorgon ; he ex-
hibited it to the Seriphians, and turned them all into stone.
This he did to avenge the wrongs of his mother, because their
king Polydectes, with the assistance of his subjects, desired
to make her his wife by force. Seriphus abounds so much
with rocks, that they say in jest that it was the work of the
Gorgon.

1 1. Tenos^ has a small city, but there is, in a grove beyond
it, a large temple of Neptune worthy of notice. It contains
large banqueting rooms, a proof of the great multitudes that
repair thither from the neighbouring places to celebrate a feast,
and to perform a common sacrifice in honour of Neptune.

12. To the Sporades belongs Amorgos,"^ the birth-place of

^ The marble was taken from Mt. Marpessus. Pliny xxxvi. 5 ; Virg,
iEn. 6, Marpesia cautes.

2 Od. XV. 402. 3 Myconi.

* Myconi calva omnis juventus. Terence, Hecy. a. 3, s. 4; Pliny,
b. xi. c. 37.

* It was an erroneous opinion entertained by the ancients, that frogs
did not croak in this island (Sirpho) ; hence the proverb, a Seriphian frog,
(3aTpaxog 'S.epi(pioQ.

^ Tine. Anciently it had also the names Hydrussa and Ophiussa.
^ Amorgu.

p 2

212 STRABO. Casaub. 488.

Simonides, the Iambic poet; Lebinthus^ also, and Leria
(Lero.s).^ Phocylides refers to Leria in these lines ;

"the Lerians are bad, not some, but all, except Procles; but Procles is
a Lerian ; "

for the Lerians are reputed to have bad dispositions.

13. Near these islands are Patmos,^ and the Corassiae*
islands, situated to the west of Icaria,^ as the latter is with
respect to Samos.

Icaria has no inhabitants, but it has pastures, of which the
Samians avail themselves. Notwithstanding its condition it
is famous, and gives the name of Icarian to the sea in front
of it, in which are situated Samos, Cos, and the islands just
mentioned,^ the Corassiae, Patmos, and Leros"^ [in Samos is the
mountain the Cerceteus, more celebrated than the Ampelus,
which overhangs the city of the Samians].^ Continuous to
the Icarian sea, towards the south, is the Carpathian sea, and
the -Egyptian sea to this ; to the west are the Cretan and
African seas.

14. In the Carpathian sea, between Cos, Rhodes, and Crete,
are situated many of the Sporades, as Astypalaea,^ Telos,^^
Chalcia,^^ and those mentioned by Homer in the Catalogue.

" They who occupied Nisyrus, Crapathus, Casus, and Cos,
The city of Eurypylus, and the Calydnas islands." '^

Except Cos, and Rhodes, of which we shall speak hereafter,

' Levita. * Lero. ^ Patmo.

* The Fumi ; called in b. xiv. c. i. § 13, Corsiae. ^ Nicaria.

' According to the enumeration here made by Strabo, of the islands
comprehended in the Icarian sea, it appears that in his opinion none of
the islands situated to the north of Cos belonged to the Carpathian sea ;
for according to his own statement, which immediately follows, the Car-
pathian sea to the north was bounded by the Icarian sea.

7 All the manuscripts and all editions give Aspog. Is the island spoken
of in this passage the same as the one mentioned just above by the name
of Leria? Pliny, Hist. Nat. b. iv. 23, appears to have been acquainted
with two islands bearing the name of Leros. One, from the position he
assigns to it, appears to be the one Strabo above speaks of under the
name of Leria ; but the second Leros of Pliny, b. v. § 36, must be placed
on the coast of Caria. Strabo appears to have entertained nearly the
same ideas, for we shall hereafter (b. xiv. c. i. § 6) see him give the name
of Leros to an island situated in the neighbourhood of Icaria ; and below
(§ 19) he cites also a Leros, which would seem to have been in the neigh-
bourhood of the southern extremity of Caria.

* Probably internolated. ® Istanpolia, or Stanpalia.
'» Tino. " Carchi. '« II. ii. G76.

B, X. c. V. § 15—19. THE SPORADES. CRETE. 213

we place the rest among the Sporades, and we mention them
here although they do not lie near Europe, but Asia, because
the course of* my work induces me to include the Sporades
in the description of Crete and of the Cyclades.

We shall traverse in the description of Asia the consider-
able islands adjacent to that country, as Cyprus, Rhodes, Cos,
and those situated on the succeeding line of coast, Samos,
Chios, Lesbos, and Tenedos. At present we are to describe
the remaining islands of the Sporades, which deserve mention.

15. Astypalsea lies far out at sea, and contains a city.
Telos, which is long, high, and narrow, in circumference

about 140 stadia, with a shelter for vessels, extends along the
Cnidian territory.

Chalcia is distant from Telos 80, from Carpathus 400 stadia,
and about double this number from Astypalaea. It has a set-
tlement of the same name, a temple of Apollo, and a harbour.

16. Nisyrus lies to the north of Telos, at the distance of
about 60 stadia, which is its distance also from Cos. It is
round, lofty, and rocky, and has abundance of mill-stone,
whence the neighbouring people are well supplied with stones
for grinding. It contains a city of the same name, a harbour,
hot springs, and a temple of Neptune. Its circumference is
80 stadia. Near it are small islands, called the islands of the
Nisyrians. Nisyrus is said to be a fragment broken off from
Cos ; a story is also told of Neptune, that when pursuing Poly-
botes,. one of the giants, he broke off with his trident a piece
of the island Cos, and hurled it at him, and that the missile
became the island Nisyrus, with the giant lying beneath it.
But some say that the giant lies beneath Cos.

17. Carpathus, which the poet calls Crapathus, is lofty,
having a circumference of 200 stadia. It contained four cities,
and its name was famous, which it imparted to the surround-
ing sea. One of the cities was called Nisyrus, after the name
of the island Nisyrus. It lies opposite Leuce Acte in Africa,
which is distant about 1000 stadia from Alexandria, and
about 4000 from Carpathus.

18. Casus is distant from Carpathus 70, and from the pro-
montory Salmonium in Crete 250 stadia. It is 80 stadia in
circumference. It contains a city of the same name ; and many
islands, called the islands of the Casii, lie about it.

19. They say that the poet calls the Sporades, Calydnse,

214 STRABO. Casaub. 489.

one of which is Calymna.^ But it is probable that as the
islands, which are near and dependent, have their names from
the Nisjrii and Casii, so those that lie around Calymna had
their name from that island, which was then perhaps called
Calydna. Some say that the Calydnae islands are two, Leros
and Calymna, and that the poet means these. But the Scepsian
says, that the name of the island was used in the plural
number, Calymnae, like Athense, Thebae, and that the words
of the poet must be understood according to the figure hyper-
baton, or inversion, for he does not say, the islands Calydnae,
but,

" they who occupied the islands Nisyrus, Crapathus, Casus, and Cos, the
city of Eurypylus, and Calydnae."

All the honey of the islands is, for the most part, excellent,
and rivals that of Attica ; but the honey of these islands sur-
passes it, particularly that of Calymna. ^

^ Calimno.

- Ffecundaque melle Calydna (v. 1. Calumne). Ovid. Met. b. viii. ver.
222.

BOOK XL
ASIA.

The Eleventh Book commences with Asia and the river Don, which, taking
its rise in the northern regions, separates Europe from Asia. It includes
the nations situated in Asia near its sources on the east and south, and
the barbarous Asiatic nations who occupy the neighbourhood of Mount
Caucasus, among whom are the Amazones, Massagetae, Scythians, Al-
bani, Iberes, Bactriani, Caspii, Medes, Persians, and the two Armenias,
extending to Mesopotamia. Among these nations are included the Tro-
glodytae, Heniochi, Sceptuchi, Soanes, Assyrians, Polyphagi, Nabiani,
JSiraci, and Tapyri. Mention is made of Jason and Medea, and of the
cities founded by them :— of Xerxes, Mithridates, and Alexander, son of
Philip.

CHAPTER I.

1. Asia is contiguous to Europe, approaching close to it
at the Tanais or Don.

I am to describe this country next, after dividing it, for
the sake of perspicuity, by certain natural boundaries. What
Eratosthenes has done with respect to the whole habitable
earth, this I propose to do with respect to Asia.

2. The Taurus, extending from west to east, embraces the
middle of this continent, like a girdle, leaving one portion to
the north, another to the south. The Greeks call the former
Asia Within the Taurus,' the latter, Asia Without the
Taurus. We have said this before, but it is repeated now to
assist the memory.

3. The Taurus has in many places a breadth of 3000
stadia ; its length equals that of Asia, namely 45,000 stadia,^

' B. ii. c. V. §31.

^ The following are the measurements of our author :

Stadia.

From Rhodes to Issus 5,000

From Issus to the Caspian Gates .... 10,000

From the Caspian Gates to the sources of the Indus 14,000

. From the Indus to the mouth of the Ganges . . 13.500

From thence to Thinae 2,500

45,000

216 STRABO. Casaub. 491.

reckoning from the continent opposite to Rhodes to the eastern
extremities of India and Scythia.

4. It is divided into many parts, which are circumscribed
by boundaries of greater or less extent, and distinguished by
various names.

But as such an extended range of mountains must comprise
nations some of which are little known, and others with
whom we are well acquainted, as Parthians,^ Medes, Arme-
nians, some of the Cappadocians, Cilicians, and Pisidians ;
those which approach near the northern parts must be as-
signed to the north, (northern Asia,) those approximating
the southern parts, to the south, (southern Asia,) and those
situated in the middle of the mountains must be placed on
account of the similarity of the temperature of the air, for it
is cold to the north, while the air of the south is warm.

The currents of almost all the rivers which flow from the
Taurus are in a direction contrary to each other, some run-
ning to the north, others to the south, at least at the com-
mencement of their course, although afterwards some bend
towards the east or west. They naturally suggest the adop-
tion of this chain of mountains as a boundary in the division
of Asia into two portions ; in the same manner that the sea
within the Pillars, which for the most part runs in the same
line with these mountains, conveniently forms two conti-
nents, Europe and Africa, and is a remarkable boundary to
both.

5. In passing in our geographical description from Europe
to Asia, the first parts of the country which present them-
selves are those in the northern division, and we shall there-
fore begin with these.

Of these parts the first are those about the Tana'is, (or
Don,) which we have assumed as the boundary of Europe
and Asia. These have a kind of peninsular form, for they are
surrounded on the west by the river Tana'is (or Don) and
the Palus Maaotis ^ as far as the Cimmerian Bosporus,^ and
that part of the coast of the Euxine which terminates at
Colchis ; on the north by the Ocean, as far as the mouth of
the Caspian Sea ; on the east by the same sea, as far as the

' Strabo calls the Parthians, Parthva?! ; and Parthia, Parthysea.
2 The Sea of AzofF. ^ The" Straits of Kertch or Zabache.

B. XI. c. I. § 6. ASIA. 217

confines of Albania and Armenia^ where the rivers Cyrus ^
and Araxes^ empty themselves; the latter flowing through
Armenia, and the Cyrus through Iberia^ and Albania ;'* on
the south is the tract of country extending from the mouth of
the Cyrus as far as Colchis, and comprising about 3000
stadia from sea to sea, across the territory of the Albani, and
Iberes,^ so as to represent an isthmus.^

Those writers do not deserve attention who contract the
isthmus as much as Cleitarchus, according to whom it is sub-
ject to inundations of the sea from either side. According to
Posidonius the isthmus is 1500 stadia in extent, that is, as
large as the isthmus from Pelusium to the Red Sea. And I
think, says he, that the isthmus between the Palus Maeotis
and the Ocean is not very different from this in extent.

6. I know not how any one can rely upon his authority
respecting what is uncertain, when he has nothing probable
to advance on the subject ; for he reasons so falsely respecting
things which are evident, and this too when he enjoyed the
friendship of Pompey, who had carried on war against the
Iberes and Albani, and was acquainted with both the Cas-
pian and Colchian "^ Seas on each side of the isthmus. It is
related, that when Pompey ^ was at Rhodes, on his expedi-
tion against the pirates, (he was soon afterwards to carry on
war against Mithridates and the nations as far as the Caspian
Sea,) he accidentally heard a philosophical lecture of Posido-
nius ; and on his departure he asked Posidonius if he had any
commands ; to which he replied,

' The Kur or Kour. ^ Eraskh or Aras. ' Georgia.

* Shirvan. ^ See b. ii. c. v. § 31.

' To iinderstand how this part of Asia formed a peninsula, according to
the ideas of our author, we must bear in mind, that (1) he supposed the
source of the Don to have been situated in the neighbourhood of the
Northern Ocean ; (2) he imagined the Caspian Sea to communicate with
the same Ocean. Thus all the territory comprehended between the Don
and the Caspian formed a sort of peninsula, united to the continent by an
isthmus which separated the Euxine from the Caspian, and on which was
situated Colchis, Iberia, and Albania. The 3000 stadia assigned to the
breadth of this isthmus appears to be measured by stadia of 1111 1 to a de-
gree. Goftsellin.

' The Euxine.

' Pompey appears to have visited this philosopher twice on this occa-
sion, B. c. 62, and b. c. 67, on the termination of his eastern cam-
paigns.

218 STRABO. Casatjb. 492.

" To stand the first in worth, as in command." •

Add to this, that he wrote the history of Pompey. For
these reasons he ought to have paid a greater regard to truth.

7. The second portion is that above the Hyrcanian,^ which
we also call the Caspian Sea, extending as far as the Scythians
near the Indians.

The third portion is continuous with the above-mention-
ed isthmus, and consists of the country following next in
order to the isthmus and the Caspian Gates,^ and approaching
nearest the parts within the Taurus, and to Europe ; these are
Media, Armenia, Cappadocia, and the intervening country.'*

The fourth portion consists of the tract within the Halys,^
and the parts upon and without the Taurus, which coincide
with the peninsula formed by the isthmus,^ which separates
the Euxine- and the Cilician Seas. Among the other coun-
tries beyond the Taurus we place Indica and Ariana,^ as far

' II. vi. 208. Pope.

' In many authors these names are used indifferently, the one for the
other ; they are however distinguished by Pliny, (iv. 13,) who states that
this sea begins to be called the Caspian after you have passed the river
Cyrus, (Kur,) and that the Caspii live near it; and in vi. 16, that it is
called the Hyrcanian Sea, from the Hyrcani who live along its shores.
The western side should therefore in strictness be called the Caspian ;
the eastern, the Hyrcanian. Smith, art. Caspium Mare.

^ A narrow pass leading from North Western Asia into the N. E
provinces of Persia. Their exact position was at the division of Parthia
from Media, about a day's journey from the Median town of Rhaga?.
(Arrian. iii. 19.) According to Isodorus Charax, they were immediately
below Mt. Caspius. As in the case of the people called Caspii, there
seem to have been two mountains Caspius, one near the Armenian fron-
tier, the other near the Parthian. It was through the pass of the Caspiae
Pylse that Alexander the Great pursued Darius. (Arrian. Anah. iii. 19 ;
Curt. vi. 14 ; Amm. Marc, xxiii. 6.) It was one of the most important
places in ancient geography, and from it many of the meridians were mea-
sured. The exact place corresponding with the Caspiae Pylae is probably a
spot between Hark-a-Koh, and Siah-Koh, about 6 parasangs from Rexj, the
name of the entrance of which is called Dereh. Smith, art. Caspige Pylae.^

* Du Theil justly remarks on the obscurity of this passage. His
translation or paraphrase is as follows : " La troisieme contiendra ce qui
touche a V isthme dont nous avons parle ; et, par suite, ceux des pays
qui, au sud de cet isthme et des Pyles Caspiennes, mais to uj ours en decja,
ou, au moins, dans le sein meme du Taurus, se succedant de V est a V
ouest, se rapprochent le plus de 1' Europe. In b. ii. c v. § 31, Strabo
assigns Colchis to the third portion, but in this book to the first.

5 The Kizil Ermak. « B. i. c. iii. § 2.

^ A district of wide extent in Central Asia, comprehending nearly the

B. XI. c. II. H- ASIA. 219

as the nations which extend to the Persian Sea, the Arabian
Gulf, and the Nile, and to the Egyptian and the Issic seas.

CHAPTER 11.

1. According to this disposition, the first portion towards
the north and the Ocean is inhabited by certain tribes of Scy-
thians, shepherds, (nomades,) and Hamaxoeci (or those who
live in waggon-houses). Within these tribes live Sarmatians,
who also are Scythians, Aorsi,^ and Siraci, extending as far as
the Caucasian Mountains towards the south. Some of these
are Nomades, or shepherd tribes, others Scenitae, (or dwellers
in tents,) and Georgi, or tillers of the ground. About the
lake Mgeotis live the Maeotae. Close to the sea is the Asiatic
portion of the Bosporus and Sindica.^ Next follow Achaei,
Zygi, Heniochi,^ Cercetae, and Macropogones (or the long-
beards). Above these people are situated the passes of the
Phtheirophagi (or Lice-eaters). After the Heniochi is Colchis,
lying at the foot of the Caucasian and Moschic mountains.
Having assumed the Tanai's as the boundary of Europe and
Asia, we must begin our description in detail from this river.

■whole of ancient Persia; and bounded on the N. by the provinces of
Bactriana, Margiana, and Hyrcania ; on the E. by the Indus ; on the S. by
the Indian Ocean and the eastern portion of the Persian Gulf; and on the
W. by Media and the mountains S, of the Caspian Sea. Its exact limits
are laid down with little accuracy in ancient authors, and it seems to have
been often confounded (as in Pliny, b. vi. c. 23, 25) with the small pro-
vince of Aria. It comprehended the provinces of Gedrosia, Drangiana,
Arachosia, Paropamisus mountains, Aria, Parthia, and Carmania. Smith,
art. Ariana. See b. xv. c. ii. § 7, 8.

* The Aorsi and Siraci occupied the country between the Sea of Azoflf,
the Don, the Volga, the Caspian Sea, and the Terek. May not the Aorsi,
says Gossellin, be the same as the Thyrsageta;, Agathursi, Utidorsi,
Adorsi, Alanorsi of other writers, but whose real name is Thyrsi ? The
Siraci do not appear to differ from the Soraci or Seraci. of Tacitus, (Ann.
xii. 15, &c.,) and may be the same as lyrces, 'Ivp/ctf, afterwards called
Turcae.

^ The country to the N. and N. E. of Anapa. By Bosporus we are to
understand the territory on each side of the Straits of Kertch.

3 B. ii. c. V. § 31.

220 STRABO. Casaub. 493.

2. The Tana'is or Don flows from the northern parts. It does
not however flow in a direction diametrically opposite to the
Nile, as some suppose, but its course is more to the east than
that of the latter river ; its sources, like those of the Nile,
are unknown. A great part of the course of the Nile is ap-
parent, for it traverses a country the whole of which is easy
of access, and its stream is navigable to a great distance from
its mouth. We are acquainted with the mouths of the Don,
(there are two in the most northerly parts of the Maeotis, dis-
tant 60 stadia from each other,) but a small part only of the
tract above the mouths is explored, on account of the sever-
ity of the cold, and the destitute state of the country ; the
natives are able to endure it, who subsist, like the wandering
shepherd tribes, on the flesh of their animals and on milk, but
strangers cannot bear the climate nor its privations. Besides,
the nomades dislike intercourse with other people, and being
a strong and numerous tribe have excluded travellers from
every part of the country which is accessible, and from all
such rivers as are navigable. For this reason some have sup-
posed that the sources of the river are among the Caucasian
mountains, that, after flowing in a full stream towards the
north, it then makes a bend, and discharges itself into the
Maeotis. Theophanes ' of Mitylene is of the same opinion with
these writers. Others suppose that it comes from the higher
parts of the Danube, but they do not produce any proof of so
remote a source, and in other climates, though they seem to
think it impossible for it to rise at no great distance and in
the north.

3. Upon the river, and on the lake, stands a city Tana'is,
founded by the Greeks, who possess the Bosporus ; but
lately the King Polemon '^ laid it waste on account of the re-
fractory disposition of the inhabitants. It was the common
mart both of the Asiatic and of the European nomades, and
of those who navigate the lake from the Bosporus, some of
whom bring slaves and hides, or any other nomadic commo-
dity ; others exchange wine for clothes, and other articles
peculiar to a civilized mode of life.

* Cn. Pompeius Theophanes was one of the more intimate friends of
Pompey, by whom he was presented with the Roman franchise in the
presence of his army. This occurred in all probabiUty about b. c. 62.
Smith, art. Theophanes. * About b. c. 16. Smith, art. Polemon I,

B. XI. c. II. § 4, 5. SEA OF AZOFF. 221

In front of the mart at the distance of 100 stadia is an is-
land Alopecia, a settlement of a mixed people. There are
other small islands not far off in the lake.

The city Tanais,^ to those who sail in a direct line to-
wards the north, is distant from the mouth of the Mseotis
2200 stadia, nor is the distance much greater in sailing along
the coast (on the east).

4. In the voyage along the coast, the first object which
presents itself to those who have proceeded to the distance of
800 stadia from the Tanais, is the Great Rhombites, as it is
called, where large quantities of fish are captured for the pur-
pose of being salted. Then at the distance of 800 stadia
more is the Lesser Rhombites,^ and a promontory, which has
smaller fisheries. The [nomades] at the former have small
islands as stations for their vessels, those at the Lesser Rhom-
bites are the Mseotie who cultivate the ground. For along
the whole of this coasting voyage live Mseotae, who are hus-
bandmen, but not less addicted to war than the nomades.
They are divided into several tribes ; those near the Tana'is
are more savage, those contiguous to the Bosporus are more
gentle in their manners.

From the Lesser Rhombites to Tyrambe, and the river An-
ticeites, are 600 stadia; then 120 to the Cimmerian village,
whence vessels set out on their voyage along the lake. In
this coasting voyage we meet with some look-out places, (for
observing the fish,) said to belong to the Clazomenians.

5. Cimmericum was formerly a city built upon a peninsula,
the isthmus of which it enclosed with a ditch and mound.
The Cimmerii once possessed great power in the Bosporus,
whence it was called the Cimmerian Bosporus. These are
the people who overran the territory of the inhabitants of
the inland parts, on the right of the Euxine, as far as Ionia.
They were dislodged from these places by Scythians, and the
Scythians by Greeks, who founded Panticapaeum,^ and the
other cities on the Bosporus.

* If there ever did exist such a city as Tanais I should expect to
find it at the extremity of that northern embouchure of the Don, which
I have before mentioned as bearing the very name the Greeks gave to
the city, with the slightest variation of orthojrraphy, in the appellation
Tdanaets or Danaetz, Clarke's Travels in Russia, chap. 14.

^ Strabo makes the distance too great between the two rivers Rhom-
bites. 3 Kertch.

222 STRABO. Casaub. 494.

6. Next to the village Achilleium/ where is the temple of
Achilles, are 20 stadia. Here is the narrowest passage, 20
stadia or more, across the mouth of the Maeotis ; on the op-
posite continent is Myrmecium, a village. Near are Hera-
cleium and Parthenium.

7. Thence to the monument of Satyrus are 90 stadia ; this
is a mound raised on a promontory,^ in memory of one of the
illustrious princes of the Bosporus.

8. Near it is Patraeus,^ a village, from which to Corocon-
dame,^ a village, are 130 stadia. This is the termination of
the Cimmerian Bosporus, as it is called. The narrow pass-
age at the mouth of the Maeotis derives its name from the
straits opposite the Achilleium, and the Myrmecium ; it ex-
tends as far as Corocondame and a small village opposite to
it in the territory of the Panticapeeans, called Acra,^ and
separated by a channel of 70 stadia in width. The ice
reaches even to this place, for the Masotis is frozen during
severe frost so as to become passable on foot. The whole of
this narrow passage has good harbours.

9. Beyond Corocondame is a large lake^ which is called
from the place Corocondametis. It discharges itself into the
sea at the distance of 10 stadia from the village. A branch^
of the river Anticeites empties itself into the lake, and forms
an island, which is surrounded by the waters of the lake, of
the Maeotis, and of the river. Some persons give this river
the name of Hypanis,^ as well as to that^ near the Borys-
thenes.^^

10. Upon sailing ^^ into the Corocondametis, we meet with

* According to La Motraye, Achilleum corresponds to Adasbournout,
but Du Theil quotes also the following passage from Peyssonel. Ac-
cording to Strabo, Achilleum must have been situated opposite Casau-dip,
the ancient Parthenium on the point Tchochekha-Bournou (the pig's
head). But perhaps the ancients placed Achilleum near the entrance of
the Euxine into the Palus Maeotis. Is not the fort of Achou, which is 8
leagues more to the east on the Palus Maeotis, the true Achilleum, tlie
name being corrupted and abridged by the Tartars ?

^ The point Rubanova. ^ Ada. * Taman. * C. Takli.

^ Ak Tengis. ' Another branch of the Kuban.

* The Kuban, anciently also the Vardanus.

« The Bog. 10 The Dnieper.

" It is probable that the Kuban Lake is here confounded with, or con-
sidered a portion of, the Lake Ak Tengis. Considering the intricacy of
all this coast, the changes that have taken place, and the absence of ac-

B. XI. c. II. ^ 11. SEA OF AZOFF. 223

Phanagoria, a considerable city, Cepi, Hermonas§a, and Apa-
turum, the temple of Venus (Apatura). Of these cities Phana-
goria and Cepi are situated in the above-mentioned island on
the left hand at the entrance of the lake ; the others are on.
the right hand in Sindica beyond the Hypanis. There is
Gorgipia,^ but the royal seat of the Sindi is in Sindica near
the sea, and Aborace.

All those who are subject to the princes of the Bosporus
are called Bosporani. The capital of the European Bospo-
rani is Panticapaeum, and of the Asian Bosporani, the city of
Phanagorium,^ for this is the name given to it. Phanagoria
seems to be the mart for those commodities which are
brought down from the Maeotis, and from the barbarous coun-
try lying above it ; and Panticapaeum, the mart for the com-
modities which are transported thither from the sea. There
is also in Phanagoria a magnificent temple of Venus Apa-
tura, the Deceitful. This epithet of the goddess is derived
from a fable, according to which the giants assaulted her in
this place. Having obtained the assistance of Hercules she hid
him in a cave, and then admitted the giants one by one into
her presence, and delivered them over to Hercules, thus
craftily^ to be put to death.

11. The Sindi, Dandarii, Toreatae, Agri, Arrhechi, and
besides these, the Tarpetes, Obidiaceni, Sittaceni, Dosci, and
many others, belong to the Maeotae ; to this people belong the
Aspurgiani also, who live between Phanagoria and Gorgi-
pia, at the distance of 500 stadia [from the Maeotis ?]. Pole-
mon, the king, entered the country of these people under a

curate knowledge, both in ancient and modern times, of these unfre-
quented parts, much must be left to conjecture. The positions therefore
assigned to ancient cities are doubtful. The names indeed are inserted
in Kiepert's maps, but without the assistance of recent travellers it would
be hazardous to pretend to fix upon their exact sites.

' icTi St Kal Fopynria. Some word or words appear to be wanting
here. Kiepert assigns a place to this name, but it seems doubtful whe-
ther a place or a district is to be understood. Below, § 14, the Sindic
harbour and city are mentioned, which may have been situated at
Sound-jouk-kale. D' Anville places them here or at Anapa, but the
contour of the coast in his map does not resemble that of any modern
maps.

- The modern town Phanagoria does not seem to occupy the site of
the ancient city.

^ ai dTTurriQ.

224 STRABO.

Casaub. 495.

show of friendship, but his design was discovered, and they
on their part attacked him unawares. He was taken prisoner,
and put to death.

With respect to the Asian MaBotae in general, some of
them were the subjects of those who possessed the mart on
the Tanai's ; others, of the Bosporani ; and different bodies
have revolted at different times. The princes of the Bospo-
rani were frequently masters of the country as far as the
Tanais, and particularly the last princes, Pharnaces, Asander,
and Polemon.

Pharnaces is said to have once brought even the river
Hypanis over the territory of the Dandarii through some
ancient canal, which he had caused to be cleared, and inun-
dated the country.

12. Next to Sindica, and Gorgipia upon the sea, is the
sea-coast inhabited by the Achsei, Zygi, and Heniochi. It
is for the most part without harbours and mountainous, being
a portion of the Caucasus.

These people subsist by piracy.

Their boats are slender, narrow, light, and capable of hold-
ing about five and twenty men, and rarely thirty. The
Greeks call them camarae. They say, that at the time of
the expedition of Jason the Achsei Phthiotae founded the
Achaia there, and the Lacedaemonians, Heniochia. Their
leaders were Rhecas, and Amphistratus, the charioteers ^ of
the Dioscuri; it is probable that the Heniochi had their
name from these persons. They equip fleets consisting of
these camarae, and being masters of the sea sometimes at-
tack vessels of burden, or invade a territory, or even a city.
Sometimes even those who occupy the Bosporus assist them,
by furnishing places of shelter for their vessels, and supply
them with provision and means for the disposal of their
booty. When they return to their own country, not having
places suitable for mooring their vessels, they put their camarae
on their shoulders, and carry them up into the forests, among
which they live, and where they cultivate a poor soil. When
the season arrives for navigation, they bring them down again
to the coast. Their habits are the same even in a foreign
country, for they are acquainted with wooded tracts, in which,
after concealing their camarse, they wander about on foot day
1 t'jvioxoi.

B. XI. c. II. ^ 13, 14. COAST OF CIRCASSIA. 225

and night, for the purpose of capturing the inhabitants and
reducing them to slavery. But they readily allow whatever
is taken to be ransomed, and signify this after their departure
to those who have lost their property. In places where there
is a regular government, the injured find means of repelling
them. For, frequently, the pirates are attacked in return, and
are carried off together with their camarae. But the country
subject to the Romans is not so well protected, in conse-
quence of the neglect of those who are sent there.

13. Such then is their mode of life. But even these peo-
ple are governed by persons called Sceptuchi, and these again
are subject to the authority of tyrants,- or of kings. The
Heniochi had four kings at the time that Mithridates Eupator
fled from the country of his ancestors to the Bosporus, and
passed through their country, which was open to him, but he
avoided that of the Zygi on account of its ruggedness, and
the savage character of the people. He proceeded with dif-
ficulty along the sea-coast, frequently embarking in vessels,
till he came to the country of the Achaei, by whom he was
hospitably received. He had then completed a journey from
the Phasis of not much less than 4000 stadia.

14. From Corocondame, the course of the voyage is direct-
ly towards the east. At the distance of 180 stadia is the
Sindic harbour, and a city. Then at the distance of 400
stadia is Bata,^ as it is called, a village with a harbour. It is
at this place that Sinope on the south seems to be directly
opposite to this coast, as Carambis^ has been said to be oppo-
site to Criu-Metopon.-^

Next to Bata Artemidorus places the coast of the Cercetae,
which .has places of shelter for vessels, and villages along an
extent of about 850 stadia; then at 500 stadia more the
coast of the Achaei, then that of the Heniochi, at 1000 stadia,
then the Great Pityus, from which to Dioscurias are 360
stadia.

The authors most worthy of credit who have written the
history of the Mithridatic wars, enumerate the Achaei first,
then Zygi, then Heniochi, then Cercetae, Moschi, Colchi, and
above these the Phtheirophagi, Soanes, and other smaller
nations about the Caucasus.

^ Pschate. ' Keremp. ^ C. Aia.

VOL. II. Q

226 STRABO. Casaub. 497.

The direction of the sea-coast is at first, as I have said,
towards the east, with a southern aspect ; but from Bata
it makes a bend for a small distance, then fronts the west,
and terminates towards Pityus, and Dioscurias, for these
places are contiguous to the coast of Colchis, which I have
already mentioned. Next to Dioscurias is the remainder of
the coast of Colchis, and Trapezus contiguous to it ; where
the coast, having made a considerable turn, then extends
nearly in a straight line, and forms the side on the right hand
of the Euxine, looking to the north.

The whole of the coast of the Achaei, and of the other
nations, as far as Dioscurias, and the inland places lying in a
straight line towards the south, are at the foot of the Caucasus.

15. This mountain overhangs both the Euxine and the Cas-
pian seas,, forming a kind of rampart to the isthmus which
separates one sea from the other. To the south it is the
boundary of Albania and Iberia, to the north, of the plains
of the Sarmatians. It is well wooded, and contains vari-
ous kinds of timber, and especially trees adapted to ship-
building. Eratosthenes says that the Caucasus is called
Mount Caspius by the natives, a name borrowed perhaps
from the Caspii. It throws out forks towards the south, which
embrace the middle of Iberia, and touch the Armenian and
those called the Moschic mountains,' and besides these the
mountains of Scydises, and the Paryadres. All these are
portions of the Taurus, which forms the southern side of
Armenia, and are broken off in a manner from it towards the
north, and extend as far as Caucasus, and the coast of the
Euxine which lies between Colchis and Themiscyra.^

16. Situated on a bay of this kind, and occupying the most
easterly point of the whole sea, is Dioscurias,^ called the recess

^ The Tschilder mountains, of which Scydeces and Paryandres are a
continuation. 2 Thermeh.

' On the mouth of the river Anthemus to the N. of Colchis. It was
situated 100 M. P., or 790 stadia to the N. P. of the Phasis, and 2260
stadia from Trapezus (Trebizond). (PHny, vi. 5; Arrian, Perip. pp. 10,
18.) Upon or near the spot to which the twin sons of Leda gave their
name, (Mela, i. 19, § 5; comp. Am. Marc. xxii. 8, § 24,) the Romans
built Sebastopolis, (Steph. B. ; Procop. B. G. iv. 4,) which was deserted
in the time of Pliny, but was afterwards garrisoned by Justinian. The
SoTERiopoLis of later times has been identified with it. The position of
this place must be looked for near the roadstead of Iskuria. Smith, art.
Dioscurias.

B. XI. c. IT. § 17. GEORGIA. 227

of the Euxine Sea, and the extreme boundary of naviga-
tion, for in this sense we are to understand the proverbial
saying,

" To Phasis where ships end their course."

Not as if the author of the iambic intended to speak of the
river, nor of the city of the same name upon the river, but
Colchis designated by a part, because from the city and the
river there remains a voyage of not less than 600 stadia in a
straight line to the recess of the bay. This same Dioscurias
is the commencement of the isthmus lying between the Cas-
pian Sea and the Euxine. It is a common mart of the nations
situated above it, and in its neighbourhood. There assemble
at Dioscurias 70 or, according to some writers who are care-
less in their statements,^ 300 nations. All speak different
languages, from living dispersed in various places and with-
out intercourse, in consequence of their fierce and savage
manners. They are chiefly Sarmatians, but all of them Cau-
casian tribes. So much then respecting Dioscurias.

17. The greater part of the rest of Colchis lies upon the sea.
The Phasis,^ a large river, flows through it. It has its source
in Armenia, and receives the Glaucus,^ and the Hippus,"* which
issue from the neighbouring mountains. Vessels ascend it as
far as the fortress of Sarapana,^ which is capable of contain-
ing the population even of a city. Persons proceed thence by
land to the Cyrus in four days along a carriage road.^ Upon
the Phasis is a city of the same name, a mart of the Colchians,
bounded on one side by the river, on another by a lake, on
the third by the sea. Thence it is a voyage of three or two"^
days to Amisus and Sinope, on account of the softness of the
shores caused by the discharge of rivers.®

The country is fertile and its produce is good, except the

' olg ovStv Toiv ovTix)v fisXd, or careless of the truth. Kramer observes
that these words are inconveniently placed in the Greek text.
2 The Rion. » The Tschorocsu. * The Ilori.

^ Choropani.

* The point of embarkation on the Cyrus (the Kur) Is supposed to
have been Surham, the ancient Sura.

^ Gossellin, Groskurd, and Kramer, all agree that there is here an error.
Kramer is of opinion that the conjecture of Gossellin may be adopted, viz.
" eight or nine," instead of " three or two," the letters T and B being a
corruption of H and 9.

* Coray's proposed reading is adopted, Kara for kuL

Q 2

228 STRABO. Casaub. 498.

honey, which has generally a bitter taste. It furnishes all
materials for ship-building. It produces them in great plenty,
and they are conveyed down by its rivers. It supplies flax,
hemp, wax, and pitch, in great abundance. Its linen manu-
facture is celebrated, for it was exported to foreign parts ;
and those who wish to establish an affinity of race between
the Colchians and the Egyptians, advance this as a proof of it.
Above the rivers which I have mentioned in the Moschic
territory is the temple of Leucothea,^ founded by Phrixus^
and his oracle, where a ram is not sacrificed. It was once
rich, but was plundered in our time by Pharnaces, and a little
afterwards by Mithridates of Pergamus.^ For when a coun-
try is devastated, in the words of Euripides,

" respect to the gods languishes, and they are not honoured."*

18. How great anciently was the celebrity of this country,
appears from the fables which refer obscurely to the expedition
of Jason, who advanced as far even as Media ; and still earlier
intimations of it are found in the fables relative to the expe-
dition of Phrixus. The kings that preceded, and who pos-
sessed the country when it was divided into Sceptuchies,^
were not very powerful, but when Mithridates Eupator had
enlarged his territory, this country fell under his dominion.
One of his courtiers was always sent as sub-governor and
administrator of its public affairs. Of this number was Moa-
phernes, my mother's paternal uncle. It was from this country
that the king derived the greatest part of his supplies for the
equipment of his naval armament. But upon the overthrow
of Mithridates, all the country subject to his power was dis-
united, and divided among several persons. At last Polemon

^ According'to Heyne, this was an Assyrian goddess worshipped under
various titles.

'^ In consequence of the intrigues of his stepmother Ino he was to he
sacrificed to Zeus, but his mother Nephele removed him and his sister
Helle, and the two then rode away on the ram with the golden fleece, the
gift of Hermes, through the air. Helle fell into the sea, which was after-
wards called, after her, the Hellespont. Smith, art. Phrixus.

^ The son of Menodotus by a daughter o Adobogion, a descendant of
the tetrarchs of Galatia. He was the personal friend of Csesar, who at
the commencement of the Alexandrian war (b. c. 48) sent him into
Syria and Cilicia to raise auxiliary forces. Smith, art. Mithridates, and
see B. xiii. c. iv. § 3.

* Eurip. Troad. 26.

B. XI. c. n. § 19. CAUCASUS. 229

obtained possession of Colchis, and after his death his wife
Pythodoris reigned over the Colchians, Trapezus, Pharnacia,
and the Barbarians situated above them, of whom I shall
speak in another place.

The territory of the Moschi, in which is situated the tem-
ple, is divided into three portions, one of which is occupied
by Colchians, another by Iberians, and the third by Arme-
nians. There is in Iberia on the confines of Colchis, a small
city, the city of Phrixus, the present Idessa, a place of
strength. The river Charis ^ flows near Dioscurias.

19. Among the nations that assemble at Dioscurias are
the Phtheiropagi, who have their appellation from their dirt
and filth.

Near them live the Soanes, not less dirty in their habits,
but superior perhaps to all the tribes in strength and courage.
They are masters of the country around them, and occupy
the heights of Caucasus above Dioscurias. They have a king,
and a council of three hundred persons. They can assemble,
it is said, an army of two hundred thousand men, for all their
people are fighting men, but not distributed into certain orders.
In their country the winter torrents are said to bring down
even gold, which the Barbarians collect in troughs pierced
with holes, and lined with fleeces; and hence the fable of
the golden fleece. Some^ say that they are called Iberians
(the same name as the western Iberians) from the gold mines
found in both countries. The Soanes use poison of an extra-
ordinary kind for the points of their weapons ; even the odour
of this poison is a cause of suffering to those who are wounded
by arrows thus prepared.

The other neighbouring nations about the Caucasus occupy
barren and narrow tracts of land. But the tribes of the Al-
banians and Iberians, who possess nearly the whole of the
above-mentioned isthmus, may also be denominated Cauca-
sian, and yet they live in a fertile country and capable of
being well peopled.

* Casaubon would read Corax. — ^The Sukum.

- Adopting Kramer's proposed reading, svioi in place of el firj.

230 STRABO. Casaub. 499.

CHAPTER III.

1. The greater part of Iberia is well inhabited, and con-
tains cities and villages where the houses have roofs covered
with tiles, and display skill in building ; there are market-
places in them, and various kinds of public edifices.

2. Some part of the country is encompassed by the Cauca-
sian mountains ; for branches of this range advance, as I have
said, towards the south. These districts are fruitful, com-
prise the whole of Iberia, and extend to Armenia and Colchis.
In the middle is a plain watered by rivers, the largest of
which is the Cyrus, which, rising in Armenia, immediately
enters the above-mentioned plain, having received the Ara-
gus,^ which flows at the foot of the Caucasus, and other
streams, passes through a narrow channel into Albania. It
flows however between this country and Armenia in a large
body through plains, which afford excellent pasture. After
having received several rivers, and among these the Alazo-
nius,^ Sandobanes, the Rhoetaces, and Chanes, all of which
are navigable, it discharges itself into the Caspian Sea. Its
former name was Corns.

3. The plai]:\ is occupied by those Iberians who are more
disposed to agriculture, and are inclined to peace. Their
dress is after the Armenian and Median fashion. Those
who inhabit the mountainous country, and they are the most
numerous, are addicted to war, live like the Sarmatians and
Scythians, on whose country they border, and with whom
they are connected by affinity of race. These people how-
ever engage in agriculture also, and can assemble many
myriads of persons from among themselves, and from the
Scythians and Sarmatians, whenever any disturbance occurs.

4. There are four passes into the country; one through
Sarapana, a Colchian fortress, and through the defiles near it,
along which the Phasis, rendered passable from one side
to the other by a hundred and twenty bridges, in conse-

1 The Arak.

^ In the English map, reduced from the Russian military map, there
are two rivers Alasan, flowing in contrary directions from M. Bebala.
The modern names of the other rivers here mentioned are not well as-
certained.

B. XI. c. III. § 5, 6. CAUCASUS. IBERIA. 231

quence of the winding of its stream, descends abruptly and
violently into Colchis. The places in its course are hollowed
by numerous torrents, during the rainy season. It rises in
the mountains which lie above, and many springs contribute
to swell its stream. In the plains it receives other rivers
also, among which are the Glaucus ^ and the Hippus.^ The
stream thus filled and navigable discharges itself into the
Pontus. It has on its banks a city of the same name, and
near it a lake. Such is the nature of the entrance into
Iberia from Colchis, shut in by rocks and strongholds, and
by rivers running through ravines.

5. From the Nomades on the north there is a difficult
ascent for three days, and then a narrow road by the side of
the river Aragus, a journey of four days, which road admits
only one person to pass at a time. The termination of the
road is guarded by an impregnable wall.

From Albania the entrance is at first cut through rocks,
then passes over a marsh formed by the river (Alazonius),^
in its descent from the Caucasus. On the side of Armenia are
the narrow passes on the Cyrus, and those on the Aragus, for
before the junction of these rivers they have on their banks
strong cities set upon rocks, at the distance from each other
of about 18 stadia, as Harmozica* on the Cyrus, and on the
other (Aragus) Seusamora. Pompey formerly in his way
from Armenia, and afterwards Canidius, marched through
these passes into Iberia.

6. The inhabitants of this country are also divided into
four classes ; the first and chief is that from which the kings
are appointed. The king is the oldest and the nearest of his
predecessor's relations. The second administers justice, and
is commander of the army.

The second class consists of priests, whose business it is to
settle the respective rights of their own and the bordering
people.

The third is composed of soldiers and husbandmen. The
fourth comprehends the common people, who are royal slaves,
and perform all the duties of ordinary life^

' Tchorocsu. 2 Uori.

^ Probably the Alasan flowing from M. Bebala.

* Akalziche.

232 STRABO. Casaub. 501.

Possessions are common property in families, but the eldest
governs, and is the steward of each.

Such is the character of the Iberians, and the nature of
their country.

CHAPTER IV.

1. The Albanians pursue rather a shepherd life, and resem-
ble more the nomadic tribes, except that they are not savages,
and hence they are little disposed to war. They inhabit the
country between the Iberians and the Caspian Sea, approach-
ing close to the sea on the east, and on the west border upon
the Iberians.

Of the remaining sides the northern is protected by the
Caucasian mountains, for these overhang the plains, and are
called, particularly those near the sea, Ceraunian mountains.
The southern side is formed by Armenia, which extends
along it. A large portion of it consists of plains, and a
large portion also of mountains, as Cambysene, where the
Armenians approach close both to the Iberians and the Al-
banians.

2. The Cyrus, which flows through Albania, and the other
rivers which swell the stream of the Cyrus, improve the
qualities of the land, but remove the sea to a distance. For
the mud, accumulating in great quantity, fills- up the channel
in such a manner, that the small adjacent islands are an-
nexed to the continent, irregular marshes are formed, and
difficult to be avoided ; the reverberation also of the tide in-
creases the irregular formation of the marshes. The mouth
of the river is said to be divided into twelve branches, some
of which afford no passage through them, others are so shallow
as to leave no shelter for vessels. The shore for an extent
of more than 60 stadia is inundated by the sea, and by the
rivers ; all that part of it is inaccessible ; the mud reaches
even as far as 50Q stadia, and forms a bank along the coast.
The Araxes^ discharges its waters not far off, coming with
an impetuous stream from Armenia, but the mud which this

1 The Aras.

B. XI. c. IV. § 3—5. CAUCASUS. ALBANIA. 233

river impels fonvard, making the channel pervious, is replaced
by the Cyrus.

3. Perhaps such a race of people have no need of the sea,
for they do not make a proper use even of the land, which
produces every kind of fruit, even the most delicate, and
every kind of plant and evergreen. It is not cultivated with
the least care ; but all that is excellent grows without sowing,
and without ploughing, according to the accounts of persons
who have accompanied armies there, and describe the inhabit-
ants as leading a Cyclopean mode of life. In many places the
ground, which has been sowed once, produces two or three
crops, the first of which is even fifty-fold, and that without
a fallow, nor is the ground turned with an iron instrument,
but with a plough made entirely of wood. The whole plain
is better watered than Babylon or JEgypt, by rivers and
streams, so that it always presents the appearance of herbage,
and it affords excellent pasture. The air here is better than
in those countries. The vines remain always without digging
round them, and are pruned every five years. The young
trees bear fruit even the second year, but the full grown
yield so much that a large quantity of it is left on the
branches. The cattle, both tame and wild, thrive well in this
country.

4. The men are distinguished for beauty of person and for
size. They are simple in their dealings and not fraudulent,
for they do not in general use coined money ; nor are they
acquainted with any number above a hundred, and transact
their exchanges by loads. They are careless with regard to
the other circumstances of life. They are ignorant of weights
and measures as far as exactness is concerned ; they are im-
provident with respect to war, government, and agriculture.
They fight however on foot and on horseback, both in light
and in heavy armour, like the Armenians.

5. Thej can send into the field a larger army than the
Iberians, for they can equip 60,000 infantry and 22,000
horsemen ; with such a force they offered resistance to Pom-
pey. The Nomades also co-operate with them against foreign-
ers, as they do with the Iberians on similar occasions. When
there is no war they frequently attack these people and pre-
vent them from cultivating the ground. They use javelins
and bows, and wear breastplates, shields, and coverings for

234 STRABO. Casaub. 502.

the head, made of the hides of wild animals, like the Ibe-
rians.

To the country of the Albanians belongs Caspiana, and has
its name from the Caspian tribe, from whom the sea also has
its appellation ; the Caspian tribe is now extinct.

The entrance from Iberia into Albania is through the Cam-
bysene, a country without water, and rocky, to the river Ala-
zonius. The people themselves and their dogs are exces-
sively fond of the chase, pursuing it with equal eagerness
and skill.

6. Their kings differ from one another ; at present one king
governs all the tribes. Formerly each tribe was governed by
a king, who spoke the peculiar language of each. They
speak six and twenty languages from the want of mutual
intercourse and communication with one another.

The country produces some venomous reptiles, as scorpions
and tarantulas. These tarantulas cause death in some instances
by laughter, in others by grief and a longing to return home.

7. The gods they worship are the Sun, Jupiter, and the
Moon, but the Moon above the rest. She has a temple near
Iberia. The priest is a person who, next to the king, re-
ceives the highest honours. He has the government of the
sacred land, which is extensive and populous, and authority
over the sacred attendants, many of whom are divinely in-
spired, and prophesy. Whoever of these persons, being vio-
lently possessed, wanders alone in the woods, is seized by the
priest, who, having bound him with sacred fetters, maintains
him sumptuously during that year. Afterwards he is brought
forth at the sacrifice performed in honour of the goddess, and
is anointed with fragrant ointment and sacrificed together with
other victims. The sacrifice is performed in the following
manner. A person, having in his hand a sacred lance, with
which it is the custom to sacrifice human victims, advances out
of the crowd and pierces the heart through the side, which he
does from experience in this office. When the man has fallen,
certain prognostications are indicated by the manner of the
fall, and these are publicly declared. The body is carried away
to a certain spot, and then they all trample upon it, perform-
ing this action as a mode of purification of themselves.

8. The Albanians pay the greatest respect to old age, which
is not confined to their parents, but is extended to old persons

B. XI. c. V. § 1. AMAZONS. 235

in general. It is regarded as impious to show any concern
for the dead, or to mention their names. Their money is buried
with them, hence they live in poverty, having no patrimony.
So much concerning the Albanians. It is said that when
Jason, accompanied by Armenus the Thessalian, undertook
the voyage to the Colchi, they advanced as far as the Caspian
Sea, and traversed Iberia, Albania, a great part of Armenia,
and Media, as the Jasoneia and many other monuments tes-
tify. Armenus, they say, was a native of Armenium, one of
the cities on the lake Boebeis, between Pherae and Parisa, and
that his companions settled in Acihsene, and the Suspiritis,
and occupied the country as far as Calachene and Adiabene,
and that he gave his own name to Armenia.

CHAPTER V.

1. The Amazons are said to live among the mountains
above Albania. Theophanes, who accompanied Pompey in
his wars, and was in the country of the Albanians, says that
Gelae and Legae,^ Scythian tribes, live between the Amazons
and the Albanians, and that the river Mermadalis^ takes its
course in the country lying in the middle between these
people and the Amazons. But other writers, and among
these Metrodorus of Scepsis, and Hypsicrates, who were
themselves acquainted with these places, say that the Ama-
zons bordered upon the Gargarenses^ on the north, at the
foot of the Caucasian mountains, which are called Ceraunia.

* Strabo mentions the Gelae again, c. vii. § 1, but in a manner which
does not agree with what he here says of their position. We must per-
haps suppose that this people, in part at least, have changed their place
of residence, and that now the greater part of their descendants are to be
found in Ghilan, under the name of Gele, or Gelaki. The name of
Leges, or Legse, who have continued to occupy these regions, is recog-
nised in that of Legi, Leski. Gossellin.

2 The Mermadalis seems to be the same river called below by Strabo
Mermodas. Critics and modern travellers differ respecting its present
name. One asserts that it is the Marubias, or Marabias, of Ptolemy,
another takes it to be the Manitsch, called in Austrian maps Calaus.
Others believe it to be the small stream Mermedik, which flows into the
Terek. Others again recognise the Mermadalis in the Egorlik. Gossellin.

' Unknown. Pallas thought that he had discovered their name in

236 STRABO. Casaub. 504.

When at home they are occupied in performing with their
own hands the work of ploiaghing, planting, pasturing cattle,
and particularly in training horses. The strongest among
them spend much of their time in hunting on horseback, and
practise warlike exercises. All of them from infancy have
the right breast seared, in order that they may use the arm with
ease for all manner of purposes, and particularly for throw-
ing the javelin. They employ the bow also, and sagaris,
(a kind of sword,) and wear a buckler. They make helmets,
and coverings for the body, and girdles, of the skins of wild
animals. They pass two months of the spring on a neigh-
bouring mountain, which is the boundary between them and
the Gargarenses. The latter also ascend the mountain ac-
cording to some ancient custom for the purpose of perform-
ing common sacrifices, and of having intercourse with the
women with a view to offspring, in secret and in darkness,
the man with the first woman he meets. When the women
are pregnant they are sent away. The female children that
may be born are retained by the Amazons themselves, but
the males are taken to the Gargarenses to be brought up,
The children are distributed among families, in which the
master treats them as his own, it being impossible to ascertain
the contrary.

2. The Mermodas,^ descending like a torrent from the
mountains through the country of the Amazons, the Siracene,
and the intervening desert, discharges itself into the Masotis.^

It is said that the Gargarenses ascended together with the
Amazons from Themiscyra to these places, that they then
separated, and with the assistance of some Thracians and
Euboeans, who had wandered as far as this country, made war
against the Amazons, and at length, upon its termination, enter-
ed into a compact on the conditions above mentioned, namely,
that there should be a companionship only with respect to

that of the Tscherkess, who occupied the country where Strabo places
the Gargarenses, and might be their descendants.

^ The same river probably before called the Mermadalis.

"^ This sentence has been supposed by some critics to be an interpola-
tion. Strabo above, c. ii. § 1, has already spoken of the Siraci, who
would seem to have been the inhabitants of Siracena, and may sometimes
have been called Siraceni. In c. ii. § 11, he speaks of the Sittaceni, and
assigns them a position which would indicate them as a different people
from the Seraci, or Siraceni. Gossellin.

B. XI. c. V. ^ 3-5. AMAZONS. 237

offspring, and that they should live each independent of the
other.

3. There is a peculiarity in the history of the Amazons.
In other histories the fabulous and the historical parts are
kept distinct. For what is ancient, false, and marvellous is
called fable. But history has truth for its object, whether
it be old or new, and it either rejects or rarely admits the
marvellous. But, with regard to the Amazons, the same facts
are related both by modern and by ancient writers ; they are
marvellous and exceed belief. For who can believe that an
army of women, or a city, or a nation, could ever subsist
without men ? and not only subsist, but make inroads upon
the territory of other people, and obtain possession not only
of the places near them, and advance even as far as the pre-
sent Ionia, but even despatch an expedition across the sea to
Attica? This is as much as to say that the men of those
days were women, and the women men. But even now the
same things are told of the Amazons, and the peculiarity of
their history is increased by the credit which is given to
ancient, in preference to modern, accounts.

4. They are said to have founded cities, and to have given
their names to them, as Ephesus, Smyrna, Cyme, Myrina,
besides leaving sepulchres and other memorials. Themiscyra,
the plains about the Thermodon, and the mountains lying
above, are mentioned by all writers as once belonging to the
Amazons, from whence, they say, they were driven out. Where
they are at present few writers undertake to point out, nor do
they advance proofs or probability for what they state; as in
the case of Thalestria, queen of the Amazons, with whom
Alexander is said to have had intercourse in Hyrcania with
the hope of having offspring. Writers are not agreed on this
point, and among many who have paid the greatest regard to
truth none mention the circumstance, nor do writers of the
highest credit mention anything of the kind, nor do those who
record it relate the same facts. Cleitarchus says that Tha-
lestria set out from the Caspian Gates and Thermodon to
meet Alexander. Now from the Caspian Gates to Thermodon
are more, than 6000 stadia.

5. Stories circulated for the purpose of exalting the fame
[of eminent persons] are not received with equal favour by
all ; the object of the inventors was flattery rather than truth ;

238 STRABO. Casaue. 505.

they transferred, for example, the Caucasus to the mountains
of India, and to the eastern sea, which approaches close to
them, from the mountains situated above Colchis, and the
Euxine Sea. These are the mountains to which the Greeks
give the name of Caucasus, and are distant more than 30,000
stadia from India. Here they lay the scene of Prometheus
and his chains, for these were the farthest places towards the
east with which the people of those times were acquainted.
The expeditions of Bacchus and of Hercules against the
Indi indicate a mythological story of later date, for Hercules
is said to have released Prometheus a thousand years after he
was first chained to the rock. It was more glorious too for
Alexander to subjugate Asia as far as the mountains of India,
than to the recess only of the Euxine Sea and the Caucasus.
The celebrity, and the name of the mountain, together with
the persuasion that Jason and his companions had accom-
plished the most distant of all expeditions when they had
arrived in the neighbourhood of the Caucasus, and the tra-
dition that Prometheus had been chained on Caucasus at the
extremity of the earth, induced writers to suppose that they
should gratify the king by transferring the name of the
mountain to India.

6. The highest points of the actual Caucasus are the most
southerly, and lie near Albania, Iberia, the Colchi, and Henio-
chi. They are inhabited by the people whom I have men-
tioned as assembling at Dioscurias. They resort thither
chiefly for the purpose of procuring salt. Of these tribes
some occupy the heights ; others live in wooded valleys, and
subsist chiefly on the flesh of wild animals, wild fruits, and
milk. The heights are impassable in winter ; in summer they
are ascended by fastening on the feet shoes as wide as drums,
made of raw hide, and furnished with spikes on account of the
snow and ice. The natives in descending with their loads
slide down seated upon skins, which is the practice in Media,
Atropatia, and at Mount Masius in Armenia, but there they
fasten circular disks of wood with spikes to the soles of their
feet. Such then is the nature of the heights of Caucasus.

7. On descending to the country lying at the foot of these
heights the climate is more northerly, but milder, for the
land below the heights joins the plains of the Siraces. There
are some tribes of Troglodytse who inhabit caves on account

B. XI. c. VI. § 1. THE CASPIAN. 239

of the cold. There is plenty^ of grain to be had in the
country.

Next to the Troglodytae are Chamaecoetse,^ and a tribe called
Poljphagi (the voracious), and the villages of the Eisadici,
who are able to cultivate the ground because they are not
altogether exposed to the north.

8. Immediately afterwards follow shepherd tribes, situated
between the Maeotis and the Caspian Sea, Nabiani, Pangani,^
the tribes also of the Siraces and Aorsi.

The Aorsi and Siraces seem to be a fugitive people from
parts situated above. The Aorsi lie more to the north.^

Abeacus, king of the Siraces, when Pharnases occupied
the Bosporus, equipped 20,000 horse, and Spadines, king of
the Aorsi 200,000, and the Upper Aorsi even a larger body,
for they were masters of a greater extent of territory, and
nearly the largest part of the coast of the Caspian Sea was
under their power. They were thus enabled to transport on
camels the merchandise of India and Babylonia, receiving
it from Armenians and Medes. They wore gold also in their
dress in consequence of their wealth.

The Aorsi live on the banks of the Tanais, and the Siraces
on those of Achardeus, which rises in Caucasus, and dis-
charges itself into the Maeotis.

CHAPTER VI.

1 . The second portion of northern Asia begins from the
Caspian Sea, where the first terminates. This sea is called
also the Hyrcanian Sea. We must first speak of this sea, and
of the nations that live near its shores.

It is a bay extending from the Ocean to the south. At its
commencement it is very narrow ; as it advances further in-
wards, and particularly towards the extremity, it widens to
the extent of about 500 stadia. The voyage from the entrance

' Groskurd reads uTropia, want, instead of sviropia, plenty.

' XafiaiKoirai. People who lie on the ground.

' Panxani, Paxani, Penzani. ♦ The text is here corrupt.

240 STRABO. Casaub. 507.

to the extremity may exceed that a little, the entrance ap-
proaching very near the uninhabited regions.

Eratosthenes says that the navigation of this sea was known
to the Greeks, that the part of the voyage along the coast of
the Albanians and Cadusii ^ comprised 5400 stadia ; and the
part along the country of the Anariaci, Mardi, [or Amardi,]
and Hyrcani, as far as the mouth of the river Oxus,^ 4800
stadia, and thence to the laxartes ^ 2400 stadia.

But with respect to the places situated in this portion of
Asia, and to those lying so far removed from our own coun-
try, we must not understand the accounts of writers in too
literal a sense, particularly with regard to distances.

2. Upon sailing into the Caspian, on the right hand, con-
tiguous to the Europeans, Scythians and Sarmatians occupy
the country between the Tanais and this sea ; they are chiefly
Nomades, or shepherd tribes, of whom I have already spoken.
On the left hand are the Eastern Scythian Nomades, who
extend as far as the Eastern sea, and India.

The ancient Greek historians called all the nations towards
the north by the common name of Scythians, and Kelto- Scy-
thians. Writers still more ancient than these called the nations
living above the Euxine, Danube, and Adriatic, Hyperboreans,
Sauromatae, and Arimaspi.^ But in speaking of the nations
on the other side the Caspian Sea, they called some Sacae,^
others Massagetse. They were unable to give any exact ac-
count of them, although they relate the history of the war of
Cyrus with the Massagetae. Concerning these nations no one
has ascertained the truth, and the ancient histories of Persia,
Media, and Syria have not obtained much credit on account of
the credulity of the writers and their love of fable.

3. For these authors, having observed that those who pro-
fessedly were writers of fables obtained repute and success,
supposed that they also should make their writings agreeable,

^ The country occupied by the Cadusii of whom Eratosthenes speaks
appears to have been the Ghilan, a name probably derived from the
Gelae, who are constantly associated with the Cadusii.

2 The Gihon. » The Sihon.

* i. e. the Hyperboreans above the Adriatic, the Sauromatfe above the
Danube, and the Arimaspi above the Euxine.

* The name Sacae is to be traced in Sakita, a district on the confines of
those of Vash and Gil, situated on the north of the Gihon or Oxus, con-
sequently in ancient Sogdiana. D'Anville.

B. XI, c. VII. § 1. HYRCANIA. 241

if, under the form of history, they related what they had
never seen nor heard, (not at least from eye-witnesses,) and
had no other object than to please and surprise the reader.
A person would more readily believe the stories of the heroes
in Hesiod, Homer, and in the tragic poets, than Ctesias, He-
rodotus, Hellanicus, and writers of this kind.

4. We cannot easily credit the generality of the historians of
Alexander, for they practise deception with a view to en-
hance the glory of Alexander ; the expedition also was direct-
ed to the extremities of Asia, at a great distance from our
country, and it is difficult to ascertain or detect the truth or
falsehood of what is remote. The dominion of the Romans
and of the Parthians has added very much to former dis-
coveries, and the writers who speak of these people describe
nations and places, where certain actions were performed, in a
manner more likely to produce belief than preceding historians,
for they had better opportunities of personal observation.

CHAPTER VII.

1. The nomades, or wandering tribes, who live on the left
side of the coast on entering the Caspian Sea, are called by
the moderns Dahas, and surnamed Parni.^ Then there inter-
venes a desert tract, which is followed by Hyrcania ; here the
Caspian spreads like a deep sea till it approaches the Median
and Armenian mountains. The shape of these hills at the
foot is lunated.- Their extremities terminate at the sea, and
form the recess of the bay.

A small part of this country at the foot of the mountains,
as far as the heights, if we reckon from the sea, is inhabited by
some tribes of Albanians and Armenians, but the greater por-
tion by Gelae, Cadusii, Amardi, Vitii, and Anariacae. It is said,
that some Parrhasii were settled together with the Anariacas,
who are now called Parrhasii, (Parsii ?) and that the ^nianes
built a walled city in the territory of the Vitii, which city is

' C. viii. § 2.

' At ubi coepit in latitudinem pandi lunatis obliquatur cornibus. Pliny,
N. H.

VOL. II. B

242 STRABO. Casaub. 508.

now called ^nlana (^nia). Grecian armour, brazen vessels,
and sepulchres are shown there. There also is a city Ana-
riacae, in which it is said an oracle is shown, where the
answer is given to those who consult it, during sleep, [and
some vestiges of Greek colonization, but all these] tribes are
predatory, and more disposed to war than husbandry, which
arises from the rugged nature of the country. The greater
part of the coast at the foot of the mountainous region is oc-
cupied by Cadusii, to the extent of nearly 5000 stadia, accord-
ing to Patrocles, who thinks that this sea equals the Euxine
in size. These countries are sterile.

2. Hyrcania ^ is very fertile, and extensive, consisting for
the most part of plains, and has considerable cities dispersed
throughout it, as Talabroce, Samariane, Carta, and the royal
residence, Tape,^ which is said to be situated a little above
the sea, and distant 1400 stadia from the Caspian Gates. The
following facts are narrated as indications of the fertility of
the country.^ The vine produces a metretes^ of wine; the
fig-tree sixty medimni ^ of fruit ; the corn grows from the
seed which falls out of the stalk ; bees make their hives in
the trees, and honey drops from among the leaves. This is
the case also in the territory of Matiane in Media, and in the
Sacasene, and Araxene of Armenia.®

But neither this country, nor the sea which is named after
it, has received proper care and attention from the inhabit-
ants, for there are no vessels upon the sea, nor is it turned to
any use. According to some writers there are islands on it, ca-
pable of being inhabited, in which gold is found. The cause of
this neglect is this ; the first governors of Hyrcania were
barbarians, Medes, and Persians, and lastly, people who were
more oppressive than these, namely, Parthians. The whole
of the neighbouring country was the haunt of robbers and
wandering tribes, and abounded with tracts of desert land.
For a short time Macedonians were sovereigns of the country,
but being engaged in war were unable to attend to remote

• See b. ii. c. i. § 14.

' These names have here probably undergone some change. Talabroce
may be the Tambraee or Tembrax of Polybius ; Samariane, the Soconax
of Ptolemy ; Carta, Zadra-Carta; and Tape, the Syrinx of Polybius.

' The text is here corrupt.

* About 7 gallons. * About 12 gallons. « B. ii. c. i. § 14.

B. XI. c. VII. § 3, 4. HYRCANIA. 243

possessions. Aristobulus says that Hyrcania has forests, and
produces the oak, but not the pitch pine,^ nor the fir,^ nor the
pine,^ but that India abounds with these trees.

Nessea * belongs to Hyrcania, but some writers make it an
independent district.

3. Hyrcania is watered by the rivers Ochus and Oxus as
far as their entrance into the sea. The Ochus flows through
Nessea, but some writers say that the Ochus empties itself
into the Oxus.

Aristobulus avers that the Oxus was the largest river, ex-
cept those in India, which he had seen in Asia. He says
also that it is navigable with ease, (this circumstance both
Aristobulus and Eratosthenes borrow from Patrocles,) and
that large quantities of Indian merchandise are conveyed by
it to the Hyrcanian Sea, and are transferred from thence into
Albania by the Cyrus, and through the adjoining countries to
the Euxine. The Ochus is not often mentioned by the an-
cients, but Apollodorus, the author of the Parthica, frequently
mentions it, [and describes it] as flowing very near the Par-
thians.

4. Many additional falsehoods were invented respecting
this sea, to flatter the ambition of Alexander and his love of
glory ; for, as it was generally acknowledged that the river
Tanais separated Europe from Asia throughout its whole
course, and that a large part of Asia, lying between this sea
and the Tanais, had never been subjected to the power of the
Macedonians, it was resolved to invent an expedition, in order
that, according to fame at least, Alexander might seem to
have conquered those countries. They therefore made the
lake Maeotis, which receives the Tanais, and the Caspian Sea,
which also they call a lake, one body of water, affirming that
there was a subterraneous opening between both, and that
one was part of the other. Polycleitus produces proofs to
show that this sea is a lake, for instance, that it breeds ser-
pents, and that the water is sweetish.^ That it was not a dif-

' -KiVKr). * IXcLTIfi. ^ TTITVQ.

* The country here spoken of appears to be that celebrated from the
earliest times for its breed of horses to which the epithet Nessean was
applied by ancient writers. See c. xiii. § 7.

' The modern name is uncertain.

* The same statement was made to Pompey, when in these regions in
pursuit of Mithridates.

R 2

244 STRABO. Casaub. 510.

ferent lake from the Mseotis, he conjectures from the circum-
stance of the Tanai's discharging itself into it. From the
same mountains in India, where the Ochus and the Oxus rise,
many other rivers take their course, and among these the
laxartes, which like the former empties itself into the Cas-
pian Sea, although it is the most northerly of them all. This
river then they called Tanais, and alleged, as a proof that it
was the Tanais mentioned by Polycleitus, that the country on
the other side of the river produced the fir-tree, and that the
Scythians there used arrows made of fir-wood. It was a
proof also that the country on the other side of the river was
a part of Europe and not of Asia, that Upper and Eastern Asia
do not produce the fir-tree. But Eratosthenes says that the
fir does grow even in India, and that Alexander built his
ships of that wood. Eratosthenes collects many things of this
kind, with a view to show their contradictory character. But
I have said enough about them.

5. Among the peculiarities recorded of the Hyrcanian sea,
Eudoxus and others relate the following. There is a certain
coast in front of the sea hollowed out into caverns, between
which and the sea there lies a flat shore. Rivers on reaching
this coast descend from the precipices above with sufficient force
to dart the water into the sea without wetting the intervening
shore, so that even an army could pass underneath sheltered
by the stream above. The inhabitants frequently resort to
this place for the purposes of festivity and of performing
sacrifices, one while reclining beneath the caverns, at another
basking in the sun (even) beneath the fall of water. They
divert themselves in various ways, having in sight on each
side the sea and shore, the latter of which by the dew [and
moisture of the falls] is rendered a grassy and flowery meadow.

CHAPTER VIII.

1. In proceeding from the Hyrcanian Sea towards the east,
on the right hand are the mountains which the Greeks call
Taurus, extending as far as India. They begin from Pam-
phylia and Cilicia, and stretch to this part from the west in
a continuous line, bearing different names in different places.

B. XI. c. VIII. § 2. SAC JE. MASSAGETiE. 245

The northern parts* of this range are occupied first by Gelae,
Cadusii, and Amardi, as we have said, and by some tribes of
Hyrcanians ; then follow, as we proceed towards the east
and the Ochus, the nation of the Parthians, then that of the
Margiani and Arii, and the desert country which the river
Sarnius separates from Hyrcania. The mountain, which ex-
tends to this country, or within a small distance of it, from
Armenia, is called Parachoathras.

From the Hyrcanian sea to the Arii are about 6000 stadia.'^
Next follow Bactriana, Sogdiana, and lastly nomade Scythians.
The Macedonians gave the name of Caucasus to all the
mountains which follow after Ariana,^ but among the bar-
barians the heights and the northern parts of the Parapo-
misus were called Emoda, and Mount Imaus;"* and other
names of this kind were assigned to each portion of this
range.

2. On the left hand^ opposite to these parts are situated
the Scythian and nomadic nations, occupying the whole of
the northern side. Most of the Scythians, beginning from
the Caspian Sea, are called Dahoe Scythae, and those situated
more towards the east Massagetae and Sacae ; the rest have
the common appellation of Scythians, but each separate tribe
has its peculiar name. All, or the greatest part of them, are
nomades. The best known tribes are those who deprived
the Greeks of Bactriana, the Asii, Pasiani, ( Asiani ?) Tochari,
and Sacarauli, who came from the country on the other side
of the laxartes,^ opposite the Sacae and Sogdiani, and which
country was also occupied by Sacae ; some tribes of the
Dahae are surnamed Aparni, some Xanthii, others Pissuri.''

•• avTov in this passage, as Kramer remarks, is singular.

^ From what point our author does not say.

^ There is some confusion in the text, which Groskurd attempts to
amend as follows: "But among the barbarians the heights of Ar'ana,
and the northern mountains of India, are separately called Emoda, &c.

♦ B. XV. c. i. § 11. The name is derived from the Sanscrit himavat,
which is preserved in the Latm hiems, winter, and in the modern name
Himalaya. See Smith, art. Imaus.

* On advancing from the S. E. of the Hyrcanian Sea towards the E.
« The Syr-Daria.

' Aparni, Xanthii, and Pissuri, in this passage, seem to be the same as
Pami, Xandii, and Parii, in c. ix. § 3, if we may understand in the pre-
sent passage these people to be referred to only by name, but not as
living in the country here described.

246 STRABO. Casaub. 511.

The Aparni approacli the nearest of any of these people to
Hyrcania, and to the Caspian Sea. The others extend as far
as the country opposite to Aria.

3. Between these people, Hyrcania, and Parthia as far as
Aria lies a vast and arid desert, which they crossed by long
journeys, and overran Hyrcania, the Nesaean country, and
the plains of Parthia. These people agreed to pay a tribute
on condition of having permission to overrun the country at
stated times, and to carry away the plunder. But when these
incursions became more frequent than the agreement allowed,
war ensued, afterwards peace was made, and then again war
was renewed. Such is the kind of life which the otlier No-
mades also lead, continually attacking theu' neighbours, and
then making peace with them.

4. The Sacae had made incursions similar to those of the
Cimmerians and Treres, some near their own country, others
at a greater distance. They occupied Bactriana, and got
possession of the most fertile tract in Armenia, which was
called after their own name, Sacasene. They advanced even
as far as the Cappadocians, those particularly situated near
the Euxine ; who are now called Pontici. When they were
assembled together and feasting on the division of the booty,
they were attacked by night by the Persian generals who
were then stationed in that quarter, and were utterly exter-
minated. The Persians raised a mound of earth in the form
of a hill over a rock in the plain, (where this occurred,) and
fortified it. They erected there a temple to Anaitis and the
gods Omanus and Anadatus, Persian deities who have a
common altar.^ They also instituted an annual festival, (in
memory of the event,) the Sacaea, which the occupiers of Zela,
for this is the name of the place, celebrate to this day. It is
a small city chiefly appropriated to the sacred attendants.
Pompey added to it a considerable tract of territory, the in-
habitants of which he collected within the walls. It was one
of the cities which he settled after the overthrow of Mi-
thridates.

5. Such is the account which is given of the Sacaa by some
writers. Others say, that Cyrus in an expedition against the

' These gods, otherwise unknown, are mentioned again in b. xv. c. iii.
{ 15.

B. XI. c. VIII, § 6. SAC^. MASSAGETJE. 24?

Sacae was defeated, and fled. He advanced with his army to
the spot where he had left his stores, consisting of large sup-
plies of every kind, particularly of wine ; he stopped a short
time to refresh his army, and set out in the evening, as
though he continued his flight, the tents being left full of pro-
visions. He proceeded as far as he thought requisite, and
then halted. The Sacas pursued, who, finding the camp aban-
doned and full of the means of gratifying their appetites, in-
dulged themselves without restraint. Cyrus then returned
and found them drunk and frantic ; some were killed, stretch-
ed on the ground drowsy or asleep ; others, dancing and mad-
dened with wine, fell defenceless on the weapons of their
enemies. Nearly all of them perished. Cyrus ascribed
this success to the gods ; he consecrated the day to the god-
dess worshipped in his own country, and called it Sacaea.
Wherever there is a temple of this goddess, there the Sacsean
festival, a sort of Bacchanalian feast, is celebrated, in which
both men and women, dressed in the Scythian habit, pass day
and night in drinking and wanton play.

6. The Massagetae signalized their bravery in the war with
Cyrus, of which many writers have published accounts ; we
must get our information from them. Such particulars as
the following are narrated respecting this nation ; some
tribes inhabit mountains, some plains, others live among
marshes formed by the rivers, others on the islands among the
marshes. The Araxes is said to be the river which is the chief
cause of inundating the country ; it is divided into various
branches and discharges itself by many mouths into the other
sea^ towards the north, but by one only into the Hyrcanian
Gulf. The Massagetse regard no other deity than the sun, and
to his honour they sacrifice a horse. Each man marries only
one wife, but they have intercourse with the wives of each
other without any concealment. He who has intercourse with
the wife of another man hangs up his quiver on a waggon,
and lies with her openly. They account the best mode of
death to be chopped up when they grow old with the flesh of
sheep, and both to be devoured together. Those who die of
disease are cast out as impious, and only fit to be the prey of
wild beasts ; they are excellent horsemen, and also fight well
on foot. They use bows, swords, breastplates, and sagares
* The Northern Ocean.

248 STRABO. Casaur. 513.

of brass, they w^ear golden belts, and turbans ^ on their heads
in battle. Their horses have bits of gold, and golden breast-
plates ; they have no silver, iron in small quantity, but gold
and brass in great plenty.

7. Those v^ho live in the islands have no corn-fields. Their
food consists of roots and wild fruits. Their clothes are made
of the bark of trees, for they have no sheep. They press out
and drink the juice of the fruit of certain trees.

The inhabitants of the marshes eat fish. They are clothed
in the skins of seals, which come upon the island from the sea.

The mountaineers subsist on wild fruits. They have be-
sides a few sheep, but they kill them sparingly, and keep
them for the sake of their wool and milk. Their clothes
they variegate by steeping them in dyes, which produce a
colour not easily efiaced.

The inhabitants of the plains, although they possess land,
do not cultivate it, but derive their subsistence from their
fiocks, and from fish, after the manner of the nomades and
Scythians. I have frequently described a certain way of life
common to all these people. Their burial-places and their
manners are alike, and their whole manner of living is inde-
pendent, but rude, savage, and hostile ; in their compacts, how-
ever, they are simple and without deceit.

8. The Attasii (Augasii ?) and the Chorasmii belong to
the Massagetae and Sacae, to whom Spitamenes directed his
flight from Bactria and Sogdiana. He was one of the Per-
sians who, like Bessus, made his escape from Alexander by
flight, as Arsaces afterwards fled from Seleucus Callinicus,
and retreated among the Aspasiacae.

Eratosthenes says, that the Bactrians lie along the Arachoti
and Massagetae on the west near the Oxus, and that Sacae and
Sogdiani, through the whole extent of their territory,^ are op-
posite to India, but the Bactrii in part only, for the greater part
of their country lies parallel to the Parapomisus ; that the
Sac£e and Sogdiani are separated by the laxartes, and the
Sogdiani and Bactriani by the Oxus ; that Tapyri occupy
the country between Hyrcani and Arii ; that around the
shores of the sea, next to the Hyrcani, are Amardi, Anariacae,
Cadusii, Albani, Caspii, Vitii, and perhaps other tribes ex-
tending as far as the Scythians ; that on the other side of the
' diadfifiaTU. ^ toXq oXoig idd(p£(jiv.

B. XI. c. VIII. § 9. SAC^. MASSAGETtE.

249

Hyrcani are Derbices, that the Caducii are contiguous both to
the Medes and Matiani below the Parachoathras.
9. These are the distances which he gives.

Stadia.

From the Caspian Sea to the Cyrus about 1800

Thence to the Caspian Gates . . . 5600

Thence to Alexandreia in the territory of the } q^qq

Arii ....... j

Thence to the city Bactra, which is called alsol 3370
Zariaspa ...... J

Thence to the river laxartes, which Alexander \ 5000
reached, about ..... J

Making a total of 22,670

He also assigns the following distances from the Caspian
Gates to India.

Stadia.

To Hecatompylos ^ 1960

To Alexandreia^ in the country of the Arii ) 4/^Qo

(Ariana) ...... j

Thence to Prophthasia^ in Dranga'* . \ i/^qq

(or according to others 1500) . . j

Thence to the city Arachoti^ . . 4120

Thence to Ortospana on the three roads from ) oooo

Bactra^ J

Thence to the confines of India . . . 1000

Which together amount to . . . 15,300^

^ There is great doubt where it was situated ; the distances recorded by
ancient writers not corresponding accurately with known ruins. It has
been supposeji that Damgham corresponds best with this place; but
Damgham is too near the Pylae Caspiae : on the whole it is probable that
any remains of Hecatompylos ought to be sought in the neighbourhood
of a place now called Jah Jirm. Smithy art. Hecatompylos.

2 Now Herat, the capital of Khorassan. See Smith, art. Aria Civitas.

' Zarang:. ♦ Sigistan.

* Ulan Robat, but see Smith, art. Arachotus.

6 Balkh. See Smith.

' The sum total is 15,210 stadia, and not 15,300 stadia. This latter
sum total is to be found again in b, xv, c. ii. § 8, but the passage there
referred to has served to correct a still greater error in the reading of
this chapter, viz. 15,500. Corrections of the te^t have been proposed, but
their value is doubtful.

250 STRABO. Casaub. 514.

We must regard as continuous with this distance, in a straight
line, the length of India, reckoned from the Indus to the
Eastern Sea.

Thus much then respecting the Sacse.

CHAPTER IX.

1. Parthia is not an extensive tract of country; for this
reason it was united with the Hyrcani for the purpose of pay-
ing tribute under the Persian dominion and afterwards, during
a long period when the Macedonians were masters of the coun-
try. Besides its small extent, it is thickly wooded, moun-
tainous, and produces nothing ; so that the kings with their
multitude of followers pass with great speed through the
country, which is unable to furnish subsistence for such num-
bers even for a short time. At present it is augmented in
extent. Comisene^ and Chorene are parts of Parthiene, and
perhaps also the country as far as the Caspian Gates, Rhagae,
and the Tapyri, which formerly belonged to Media. Apameia
and Heracleia are cities in the neighbourhood of Rhagae.

From the Caspian Gates to Rhagas are 500 stadia accord-
ing to Apollodorus, and to Hecatompylos, the royal seat of
the Parthians, 1260 stadia. Rhagas^ is said to have had its
name from the earthquakes which occurred in that country, by
which many cities and two thousand villages, as Poseidonius
relates, were overthrown. The Tapyri are said to live be-
tween the Derbices and the Hyrcani. Historians say, that
it is a custom among the Tapyri to surrender the married
women to other men, even when the husbands have had two
or three children by them, as Cato surrendered Marcia in
our times, according to an ancient custom of the Romans, to
Hortensius, at his request.

2. Disturbances having arisen in the countries beyond the
Taurus in consequence of the kings of Syria and Media,
who possessed the tract of which we are speaking, being en-
gaged in other affairs,^ those who were intrusted with the

* Its present name is said to be Comis. 2 The Rents.

3 Adopting Tyrwhitt's conjecture, irpbg dXXoig.

B. XI. c. IX. § 3. PARTHTA. ARIA. MARGIANA.

251

government of it occasioned first the revolt of Bactriana ;
then Euthydemus and his party the revolt of all the country
near that province. Afterwards Arsaces, a Scythian, (with
the Parni, called nomades, a tribe of the Dahae, wlio live on
the banks of the Ochus,) invaded Parthia, and made himself
master of it. At first both Arsaces and his successors were
weakened by maintaining wars with those who had been de-
prived of their territory. Afterwards they became so powerful,
in consequence of their successful warfare, continually depriv-
ing their neighbours of portions of their territory, that at last
they took possession of all the country within the Euphrates.
They deprived Eucratidas, and then the Scythians, by force
of arms, of a part of Bactriana. They now have an empire
comprehending so large an extent of country, and so many
nations, that it almost rivals that of the Romans in magnitude.
This is to be attributed to their mode of life and manners,
which have indeed much of the barbarous and Scythian cha-
racter, but are very well adapted for establishing dominion,
and for insuring success in war.

3. They say that the Dahas Parni were an emigrant tribe
from the Dahae above the Meeotis, who are called Xandii
and Parii. But it is not generally acknowledged that Dahse
are to be found among the Scythians above the Maeotis, yet
from these Arsaces according to some was descended ; ac-
cording to others he was a Bactrian, and withdrawing him-
self from the increasing power of Diodotus, occasioned the
revolt of Parthia.

We have enlarged on the subject of the Parthian customs
in the sixth book of historical commentaries, and in the second
of those, which are a sequel to Polybius : we shall omit what
we said, in order to avoid repetition ; adding this only, that
Poseidonius afiirms that the council of the Parthians is com-
posed of two classes, one of relatives, (of the royal family,)
and another of wise men and magi, by both of which kings
are chosen.

CHAPTER X.

1. Aria and Margiana, which are the best districts in this
portion of Asia, are partly composed of valleys enclosed by

252 STRABO Casaub. 516.

mountains, and partly of inhabited plains. Some tribes of Sce-
nitse (dwellers in tents) occupy the mountains ; the plains are
watered by the rivers Arius and by the Margus.

-^ria borders upon Bactriana, and the mountain ^ which has
Bactriana at its foot. It is distant from [the] Hyrcania[n
sea] about 6000 stadia.

Drangiana as far as Carmania furnished jointly with Aria
payment of the tribute. The greater part of this country
is situated at the foot of the southern side of the mountains ;
some tracts however approach the northern side opposite Aria.

Arachosia, which belongs to the territory of Aria, is not far
distant ; it lies at the foot of the southern side of the moun-
tains, and extends to the river Indus.

The length of Aria is about 2000 stadia, and the breadth
of the plain 300 stadia. Its cities are Artacaena, Alexandreia,
and Achaia, which are called after the names of their founders.

The soil produces excellent wines, which may be kept for
three generations in unpitched vessels.

2. Margiana is like this country, but the plain is surround-
ed by deserts. Antiochus Soter admired its fertility ; he
enclosed a circle of 1500 stadia with a wall, and founded a
city, Antiocheia. The soil is well adapted to vines. They
say that a vine stem has been frequently seen there which
would require two men to girth it, and bunches of grapes
two cubits in size.

CHAPTER XL

1. Some parts of Bactria lie along Aria to the north,
but the greater part stretches beyond (Aria) to the east. It
is an extensive country, and produces everything except oil.

The Greeks who occasioned its revolt became so powerful
by means of the fertility and advantages of the country, that
they became masters of Ariana and India, according to
Apollodorus of Artamita. Their chiefs, particularly Menan-
der, (if he really crossed the Hypanis to the east and reached
Isamus,)^ conquered more nations than Alexander. These

' The Parapomisus. Kramer's proposed correction is adopted.

* For Isamus in the text, Imaus is adopted by Groskurd, and Kramer

B. XI. c. XI. § 2, 3. BACTRIA. 253

conquests were achieved partly by Menander, partly by De-
metrius, son of Euthydemus, king of the Bactrians. They
got possession not only of Pattalene,^ but of the kingdoms of
Saraostus, and Sigerdis, which constitute the remainder of the
coast. Apollodorus in short says that Bactriana is the orna-
ment of all Ariana. They extended their empire even as far
as the Seres and Phryni.

2. Their cities were Bactra, which they call also Zariaspa,
(a river of the same name flows through it, and empties itself
into the Oxus,) and Darapsa,^ and many others. Among
these was Eucratidia, which had its name from Eucratidas,
the king. When the Greeks got possession of the country,
they divided it into satrapies ; that of Aspionus and Turiva^
the Parthians took from Eucratidas. They possessed Sog-
diana also, situated above Bactriana to the east, between the
river Oxus (which bounds Bactriana and Sogdiana) and the
laxartes ; the latter river separates the Sogdii and the
nomades.

3. Anciently the Sogdiani and Bactriani did not differ
much from the nomades in their mode of life and manners,
yet the manners of the Bactriani were a little more civilized.
Onesicritus however does not give the most favourable account
of this people. Those who are disabled by disease or old age
are thrown alive to be devoured by dogs kept expressly for
this purpose, and whom in the language of the country they
call entombers.'* The places on the exterior of the walls of
the capital of the Bactrians are clean, but the interior is for
the most part full of human bones. Alexander abolished this
custom. Something of the same kind is related of the Caspii
also, who, when their parents have attained the age of 70
years, confine them, and let them die of hunger. This cus-
tom, although Scythian in character, is more tolerable than
that of the Bactrians, and is similar to the domestic law of
the Cei ;^ the custom however of the Bactrians is much more
according to Scythian manners. We may be justly at a loss

considers this reading highly probable. Isamus is not found in any other
passage, but Mannert, (Geogr, v. p. 295,) finding in Pliny (N. H. vi. 21,
§ 17) the river lomanes, proposes to read in this passage 'lofidvov, in
which he recognises the Jumna.

* Tatta or Sindi. * Adraspa. B. xv. c. ii. § 10.

^ Mentioned nowhere else. Kramer seems to approve of Du Theil's
proposed correction, Tapuria. * iVTa<pia(TTdg. * B. x. c. v. § 6.

254 STRABO. Casaub. 517.

to conjecture,^ if Alexander found such customs prevailing
there, what were the customs which probably were observed
by them in the time of the first kings of Persia, and of the
princes v/ho preceded them.

4. Alexander, it is said, founded eight cities in Bactriana
and Sogdiana ; some he razed, among which were Cariatae in
Bactriana, where Callisthenes was seized and imprisoned ;
Maracanda in Sogdiana, and Cyra, the last of the places
founded by Cyrus, situated upon the river laxartes, and the
boundary of the Persian empire. This also, although it was
attached to Cyrus, he razed on account of its frequent revolts.

Alexander took also, it is said, by means of treachery, strong
fortified rocks ; one of which belonged to Sisimithres in Bac-
triana, where Oxyartes kept his daughter Roxana ; another to
Oxus in Sogdiana, or, according to some writers, to Aria-
mazas. The stronghold of Sisimithres is described by his-
torians to have been fifteen stadia in height, and eighty stadia
in circuit. On the summit is a level ground, which is fertile
and capable of maintaining 500 men. Here Alexander was
entertained with sumptuous hospitality, and here he espoused
Roxana the daughter of Oxyartes. The height of the fortress
in Sogdiana is double the height of this. It was near these
places that he destroyed the city of the Branchida?, whom
Xerxes settled there, and who had voluntarily accompanied him
from their own country. They had delivered up to the Per-
sjans the riches of the god at Didymi, and the treasure there
deposited. Alexander destroyed their city in abhorrence of
their treachery and sacrilege.

5. Aristobulus calls the river, which runs through Sog-
diana, Polytimetus, a name imposed by the Macedonians, as
they imposed many others, some of which were altogether
new, others were deflections ^ from the native appellations.
This river after watering the country flows through a desert
and sandy soil, and is absorbed in the sand, like the Arius,
which flows through the territory of the Arii.

It is said that on digging near the river Ochus a spring of
oil was discovered. It is probable, that as certain nitrous, as-
tringent, bituminous, and sulphurous fluids permeate the
earth, greasy fluids may be found, but the rarity of their oc-
currence makes their existence almost doubtful.
* The text is corrupt.

B. XI. c. XI. § 6, 7. NORTHERN ASIA. 255

The course of the Ochus, according to some writers, is
through Bactriana, according to others parallel to it. Some
allege that, taking a more southerly direction, it is distinct
from the Oxus to its mouths, but that they both discharge
themselves (separately) into the Caspian in Hyrcania. Others
again say that it is distinct, at its commencement, from the
Oxus, but that it (afterwards) unites with the latter river,
having in many places a breadth of six or seven stadia.

The laxartes is distinct from the Oxus from its commence-
ment to its termination, and empties itself into the same sea.
Their mouths, according to Patrocles, are about 80 parasangs
distant from each other. The Persian parasang some say
contains 60, others 30 or 40, stadia.

When I was sailing up the Nile, schoeni of different mea-
sures were used in passing from one city to another, so that
the same number of schoeni gave in some places a longer, in
others a shorter, length to the voyage. This mode of com-
putation has been handed down from an early period, and is
continued to the present time.

6. In proceeding from Hyrcania towards the rising sun as
far as Sogdiana, the nations beyond (within ?) the Taurus
were known first to the Persians, and afterwards to the Mace-
donians and Parthians. The nations lying in a straight line ^
above these people are supposed to be Scythian, from their
resemblance to that nation. But we are not acquainted with
any expeditions which have been undertaken against them,
nor against the most northerly tribes of the nomades. Alex-
ander proposed to conduct his army against them, when he
was in pursuit of Bessus and Spitamenes, but when Bessus was
taken prisoner, and Spitamenes put to death by the Barba-
rians, he desisted from executing his intention.

It is not generally admitted, that persons have passed
round by sea from India to Hyrcania, but Patrocles asserts
that it may be done.

7. It is said that the termination of Taurus, which is called
Imaus, approaches close to the Indian Sea, and neither ad-
vances towards nor recedes from the East more than India
itself. But on passing to the northern side, the sea contracts
(throughout the whole coast) the length and breadth of India,
so as to shorten on the East the portion of Asia we are now

' i. e. on the same parallel.

256 STRABO. Casaub. 519.

describing, comprehended between the Taurus and the North-
ern Ocean, which forms the Caspian Sea.

The greatest length of this portion, reckoned frorn the Hyr-
canian Sea to the (Eastern) Ocean opposite Imaus, is about
30,000 stadia,^ the route being along the mountainous tract of
Taurus ; the breadth is less than 10,000 stadia.^ We have
said before, that^ from the bay of Issus to the eastern sea along
the coast of India is about 40,000 stadia, and to Issus from
the western extremities at the pillars 30,000 stadia. The
recess of the bay of Issus is little, if at all, more to the east
than Amisus ; from Amisus to Hyrcania is about 10,000
stadia in a line parallel to that which we have described as
drawn from the bay of Issus to India. There remains there-
fore for the portion now delineated the above-mentioned
length towards the east, namely, 30,000 stadia.'*

' That is, from the Caspian Gates to Thince. Gossellin.

^ Strabo does not here determine either the parallel from which we are
to measure, nor the meridian we are to follow to discover this greatest
breadth, which according to him is " less than 10,000 stadia." This
passage therefore seems to present great difficulties. The difficulties
respecting the parallel can only be perceived by an examination and
comparison of the numerous passages where our author indicates the
direction of the chain of mountains which form the Taurus.

3 I do not see where this statement is to be found, except implicitly.
Strabo seems to refer us in general to various passages where he endea-
vours to determine the greatest length of the habitable world, in b. ii.
Du Theil

■* I am unable to fix upon the author's train of thought. For immedi-
ately after having assigned to this portion of the Habitable Earth (whose
dimensions he wishes to determine) 30,000 stadia as its " greatest length,"
and 10,000 stadia as its "greatest breadth," Strabo proceeds to prove
what he had just advanced respecting its greatest length. Then he
should, it seems, have endeavoured to furnish us, in the same manner,
with a proof that its greatest breadth is not more, as he says, than 10,000.
But in what follows there is nothing advanced on this point ; all that he
says is to develope another proposition, viz. that the extent of the Hyr-
canian — Caspian Sea is at the utmost 6000 stadia.

The arguments contained in this paragraph on the whole appear to me
strange; they rest on a basis which it is difficult to comprehend; they
establish explicitly a proposition which disagrees with what the author
has said elsewhere, and lastly they present an enormous geographical
error.

It will therefore be useful to the reader to explain, as far as I under-
stand it, the argument of our author.

1. The exact form of the chlamys is unknown to us, but it was such, that
its greatest breadth was to be found, if not exactly in, at least near, the
middle of its length. The Habitable Earth being of the form of a

B. XI. c. XI. § 7. NORTHERN ASIA. 257

Again, since the breadth of the longest part of the habitable
earth, which has the shape of a chlamys, (or a military cloak,)
is about 30,000 stadia, this distance would be near the meri-
dian line drawn through the Hyrcanian and the Persian
Seas, for the length of the habitable earth is 70,000 stadia.
If therefore from Hyrcania to Artemita^ in Babylonia are
8000 stadia according to Apollodorus of Artemita, and thence
to the mouth of the Persian Sea 8000, and again 8000, or a
little short of that number, to the places on the same parallel
with the extremities of Ethiopia, there would remain, to
complete the breadth as I have described it, of the habitable
earth, the number of stadia^ which I have mentioned, reckon-
ing from the recess of the Hyrcanian Sea to its mouth. This
segment of the earth being truncated towards the eastern
parts, its figure would resemble a cook's knife, for the moun-
tainous range being prolonged in a straight line, answers to
the edge, while the shape of the coast from the mouth of the
Hyrcanian Sea to Tamarus on the other side terminates in a
circular truncated line.

Chlamys, its greatest breadth would be found about the middle of its
greatest length.

2. The greatest length of the Habitable "World being 70,000 stadia, its
greatest breadth ought to be found at the distance of 35,000 stadia from
its eastern or western extremity, but this greatest breadth is only 30,000
stadia, and it does not extend, on the north, beyond the parallel of the
mouth of the Hyrcanian Sea. B. ii.

3. The meridian which passes at the distance of 35,000 stadia from the
eastern or western extremities of the Habitable Earth, is that which,
drawn from the mouth of the Hyrcanian Sea to the Northern Ocean, and
prolonged in another direction through the mouth of the Persian Gulf
to the sea called Erythraean, would pass through the city Artemita. Con-
sequently it is on the meridian of Artemita that we must look for the
greatest breadth of the Habitable Earth.

4. On this same meridian, we must reckon from the parallel of the
last habitable country in the south to the mouth of the Persian Gulf,
about 8000 stadia ; then from the mouth of the Persian Gulf to Artemita,
8000 stadia ; and from Artemita to the bottom of the Hyrcanian Sea,
8000 stadia : total 24,000 stadia.

5. It being established that the breadth of the Habitable Earth is
30,000 stadia, and not to extend it northwards beyond the parallel of the
mouth of the Hyrcanian Sea, where it communicates with the Northern
Ocean, the distance to this point from the bottom of this same sea must
be calculated at 6000 stadia. Du Theil.

' The modern Shirban is supposed to occupy its site.
^ Namely 6000. B. ii. c. i. § 17.

258 STRABO. Casatjb. 619.

8. We must mention some of the extraordinary circum-
stances which are related of those 'tribes which are perfectly
barbarous, living about Mount Caucasus, and the other moun-
tainous districts.

What Euripides expresses in the following lines is said to
be a custom among them ;

** they lament the birth of the new-bom on account of the many evils to
which they are exposed ; but the dead, and one at rest from his troubles,
is carried forth from his home with joy and gratulation."

Other tribes do not put to death even the greatest offenders,
but only banish them from their territories together with
their children ; which is contrary to the custom of the Der-
bices, who punish even slight offences with death. The Der-
bices worship the earth. They neither sacrifice, nor eat the
female of any animal. Persons who attain the age of above
seventy years are put to death by them, and their nearest rela-
tions eat their flesh. Old women are strangled, and then
buried. Those who die under seventy years of age are not
eaten, but are only buried.

The Siginni in general practise Persian customs. They
have small horses with shaggy hair, but which are not able
to carry a rider. Four of these horses are harnessed together,
driven by women, who are trained to this employment from
childhood. The best driver marries whom she pleases. Some,
they say, make it their study to appear with heads as long as
possible, and with foreheads projecting over their chins.

The Tapyrii have a custom for the men to dress in black,
and wear their hair long, and the women to dress in white,
and wear their hair short. [They live between the Derbices
and Hyrcani.] ^ He who is esteemed the bravest marries
whom he likes.

The Caspii starve to death those who are above seventy
years old, by exposing them in a desert place. The exposed
are observed at a distance ; if they are dragged from their
resting-place by birds, they are then pronounced happy ; but
if by wild beasts, or dogs, less fortunate ; but if by none of
these, ill-fated.

* Introduced from the margin according to Groskurd's opinion, sup-
ported also by Kramer.

B. XI. c. XII. § 1, 2. MOUNT TAURUS. 259

CHAPTER XII.

1. Since the Taurus constitutes the northern parts of Asia,
which are called also the parts within the Taurus, I propose
to speak first of these.

They are situated either entirely, or chiefly, among the
mountains. Those to the east of the Caspian Gates admit of
a shorter description on account of the rude state of the peo-
ple, nor is there much difference whether they are referred to
one climate^ or the other. All the western countries furnish
abundant matter for description. We must therefore proceed
to the places situated near the Caspian Gates.

Media lies towards the west, an extensive country, and
formerly powerful ; it is situated in the middle of Taurus,
which here has many branches, and contains large valleys, as
is the case in Armenia.

2. This mountain has its beginning in Caria and Lycia,
but does not exhibit there either considerable breadth or
height. It first appears to have a great altitude opposite the
Chelidoneae,^ which are islands situated in front of the com-
mencement of the Pamphylian coast. It extends towards
the east, and includes the long valleys of Cilicia. Then on
one side the Amanus^ is detached from it, and on the other
the Anti-Taurus."* In the latter is situated Comana,^ belong-
ing to the Upper Cappadocia. It terminates in Cataonia,
but Mount Amanus is continued as far as the Euphrates, and
Melitene,^ where Commagene extends along Cappadocia.
It receives the mountains beyond the Euphrates, which are
continuous with those before mentioned, except the part which
is intercepted by the river flowing through the middle of them.

* i. e. To northern or southern Asia. B. ii. c. i. § 20.

2 There are five islands off the Hiera Acta, which is now Cape Kheli-
donia. The Greeks still call them Cheledoniae, of which the Italians
make Celidoni ; and the Turks have adopted the Italian name, and call
them Shelidan. Smith, art. Chelidonise Insulae.

3 Amanus descends from the mass of Taurus, and surrounds the Gulf
of Issus.

* Dudschik Dagh.

' It is generally supposed that the modem town Al Bostan on the Si-
koon, Seihun, or Sarus, is or is near the site of Comana of Cappadocia.
Smith, art. Comana. « Malatia.

B 2

260 STRABO. Casaub. 621.

Here its height and breadth become greater, and its branches
more numerous. The Taurus extends the farthest distance
towards the south, where it separates Armenia from Meso-
potamia.

3. From the south flow both rivers, the Euphrates and
the Tigris, which encircle Mesopotamia, and approach close
to each other at Babylonia, and then discharge themselves
into the sea on the coast of Persia. The Euphrates is the
larger river, and traverses a greater tract of country with a tor-
tuous course, it rises in the northern part of Taurus, and flows
toward the west through Armenia the Greater, as it is called,
to Armenia the Less, having the latter on the right and
Acilisene on the left hand. It then turns to the south, and
at its bend touches the boundaries of Cappadocia. It leaves
this and Commagene on the right hand ; on the left Acili-
sene and Sophene,^ belonging to the Greater Armenia. It
proceeds onwards to Syria, and again makes another bend in
its way to Babylonia and the Persian Gulf.

The Tigris takes its course from the southern part of the
same mountains to Seleucia,^ approaches close to the Eu-
phrates, with which it forms Mesopotamia. It then empties
itself into the same gulf.

The sources of the Tigris and of the Euphrates are distant
from each other about 2500 stadia.

4. Towards the north there are many forks which branch
away from the Taurus. One of these is called Anti-Taurus,
for there the mountain had this name, and includes Sophene
in a valley situated between Anti-Taurus and the Taurus.

Next to the Anti-Taurus on the other side of the Euphrates,
along the Lesser Armenia, there stretches towards the north
a large mountain with many branches, one of which is called
Paryadres,^ another the Moschic mountains, and others by
other names. The Moschic mountains comprehend the whole
of Armenians as far as the Iberians and Albanians. Other
mountains again rise towards the east above the Caspian Sea,
and extend as far as Media the Greater, and the Atropatian-
Media. They call all these parts of the mountains Paracho-
athras, as well as those which extend to the Caspian Gates, and
those still farther above towards the east, which are contigu-

• Dzophok. '^ Azerbaijan.

' The range overhanging Cerasus, now Kerasun.

B. XI. c. XII. § 5. MOUNT TAURUS. 261

ous to Asia. The following are the names of the mountains
towards the north.

The southern mountains on the other side of the Euphrates,
extending towards the east from Cappadocia and Commagene,^
at their commencement have the name of Taurus, which
separates Sophene and the rest of Armenia from Mesopota-
mia, but some writers call them the Gordyaean mountains.^
Among these is Mount Masius,^ which is situated above Nisi-
bis,* and Tigranocerta.^ It then becomes more elevated, and
is called Niphates.^ Somewhere in this part on the southern
side of the mountainous chain are the sources of the Tigris.
Then the ridge of mountains continuing to extend from the
Niphates forms the mountain Zagrius, which separates Media
and Babylonia. After the Zagrius follows above Babylonia
the mountainous range of the Elymaei and Paraetaceni, and
above Media that of the Cossaei.

In the middle of these branches are situated Media and
Armenia, which comprise many mountains, and many moun-
tain plains, as well as plains and large valleys. Numerous
small tribes live around among the mountains, who are for
the most part robbers.

We thus place within the Taurus Armenia and Media, to
which belong the Caspian Gates.

5. In our opinion these nations may be considered as situ-
ated to the north, since they are within the Taurus. But
Eratosthenes, having divided Asia into southern and northern
portions, and what he calls seals, (or sections,)"^ designating
some as northern, others as southern, makes the Caspian
Gates the boundary of both climates. He might without any
impropriety have represented the more southern parts of the
Caspian Gates as in southern Asia, among which are Media
and Armenia, and the parts more to the north than the Cas-
pian Gates in northern Asia, which might be the case accord*
ing to different descriptions of the country. But perhaps
Eratosthenes did not attend to the circumstance, that there

* Camasch. The country situated N. W. of the Euphrates in about
38° lat.

' The range of Kurdistan on the E. of the Tigris.
' The range lying between the Euphrates and the Tigris, between 37*>
and 38° lat. * Nisibin or Netzid.

* Meja-Farkin, by " above" these cities, would appear to mean over-
hanging them both, as it is situated between them.

6 Nepat-Learn. ' B. ii. c. i. § 22.

262 STRABO. Casaijb. 523.

is no part of Armenia nor of Media towards the south on the
other side of the Taurus.

CHAPTER XIIL

1. Media is divided into two parts, one of which is called
the Greater Media. Its capital is Ecbatana,^ a large city-
containing the royal seat of the Median empire. This palace
the Parthians continue to occupy even at this time. Here
their kings pass the summer, for the air of Media is cool.
Their winter residence is at Seleucia, on the Tigris, near
Babylon.

' The other division is Atropatian Media. It had its name
from Atropatus, a chief who prevented this country, which is
a part of Greater Media, from being subjected to the domin-
ion of the Macedonians. When he was made king he
established the independence of this country ; his successors
continue to the present day, and have at different times con-
tracted marriages with the kings of Armenia, Syria, and
Parthia.

2. Atropatian Media borders upon Armenia and Matiane ^
towards the east, towards the west on the Greater Media, and
on both towards the north ; towards the south it is contiguous
to the people living about the recess of the Hyrcanian Sea,
and to Matiane.

According to Apollonides its strength is not inconsiderable,-
since it can furnish 10,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry.

It contains a lake called Spauta,^ (Kapauta,) in which salt
effloresces, and is consolidated. The salt occasions itching and
pain, but oil is a cure for both, and sweet water restores the
colour of clothes, which have the appearance of being burnt,"*
when they have been immersed in the lake by ignorant per-
sons for the purpose of washing them.

* Hamadan.

^ An interpolation; probably introduced from Matiane below. Falconer.
Kramer.

^ Its ancient name according to Kramer was Kapotan. Kaputan-
Dzow, The Blue Lake, now the Lake Urmiah.

* KaTrvpojOelffiv. Kramer observes that the meaning of the word in
this passage is not clear. It may possibly mean some colour to which the
name of the lake was given.

B. XI. c. XIII. § 3, 4. MEDIA. 263

They have powerful neighbours in the Armenians and
Parthians, by whom they are frequently plundered ; they re-
sist however, and recover what has been taken away, as they
recovered Symbace ^ from the Armenians, who were defeated
by the Romans, and they themselves became the friends of
Caesar. They at the same time endeavour to conciliate the
Parthians.

3. The summer palace is at Gazaka, situated in a plain ;
the winter palace^ is in Vera, a strong fortress which Antony
besieged in his expedition against the Parthians. The last
is distant from the Araxes, which separates Armenia and
Atropatene, 2400 stadia, according to Dellius, the friend of
Antany, who wrote an account of the expedition of Antony
against the Parthians, which he himself accompanied, and in
which he held a command.

The other parts of this country are fertile, but that towards
the north is mountainous, rugged, and cold, the abode of the
mountain tribes of Cadusii Amardi, Tapyri, Curtii, and other
similar nations, who are migratory, and robbers. These peo-
ple are scattered over the Zagrus and Niphates. The Curtii
in Persia, and Mardi, (for so they call the Amardi,) and
those in Armenia, and who bear the same name at present,
have the same kind of character.

4. The Cadusii have an army of foot soldiers not inferior
in number to that of the Ariani. They are very expert in
throwing the javelin. In the rocky places the soldiers en-
gage in battle on foot, instead of on their horses. The ex-
pedition of Antony was harassing to the army, not by the
nature of the country, but by the conduct of their guide,
Artavasdes, king of the Armenii, whom Antony rashly made
his adviser, and master of his intentions respecting the war,
when at the same time that prince was contriving a plan for
his destruction. Antony punished Artavasdes, but too late ;
the latter had been the cause of many calamities to the
Romans, in conjunction with another person ; he made the
march from the Zeugma on the Euphrates to the borders of
Atropatene to exceed 8000 stadia, or double the distance of
the direct course, [by leading the army] over mountains, and
places where there were no roads, and by a circuitous route.

' It is uncertain whether this is a place, or a district.
'•* Adopting Groskurd's emendation x^'^H-'^diov.

264 STRABO. Casaub. 524.

5. The Greater Media anciently governed the whole of
Asia, after the overthrow of the Syrian empire : but after-
wards, in the time of Astyages, the Medes were deprived of
this extensive sovereignty by Cyrus and the Persians, yet
they retained much of their ancient importance. Ecbatana
was the winter (royal ?) residence ^ of the Persian kings, as it
was of the Macedonian princes, who overthrew the Persian
empire, and got possession of Syria. It still continues to
serve the same purpose, and affords security to the kings of
Parthia.

6. Media is bounded on the east by Parthia, and by the
mountains of the Cossaei, a predatory tribe. They once furn-
ished the Elymaei, whose allies they were in the war against
the Susii and Babylonians, with 13,000 archers. Nearchus
says that there were four robber tribes ; the Mardi, who were
contiguous to the Persians ; the Uxii and Elymaei, who were
on the borders of the Persians and Susii ; and the Cossaei, on
those of the Medes ; that all of them exacted tribute from the
kings ; that the Cossaei received presents, when the king, hav-
ing passed his summer at Ecbatana went down to Babylonia ;
that Alexander attacked them in the winter time, and re-
pressed their excessive insolence. Media is bounded on the
east by these nations, and by the Paraetaceni, who are con-
tiguous to the Persians, and are mountaineers, and robbers ;
on the north by the Cadusii, who live above the Hyrcanian
Sea, and by other nations, whom we have just enumerated ;
on the south by the Apolloniatis, which the ancients called
Sitacene, and by the Zagrus, along which lies Massabatica,
which belongs to Media, but according to others, to Elymaea ;
on the west by the Atropatii, and by some tribes of the Ar-
menians.

There are also Grecian cities in Media, founded by Mace-
donians, as Laodiceia, Apameia, Heracleia near Rhagae, and
Rhaga itself, founded by Nicator, who called it Europus, and
the Parthians Arsacia, situated about 500 stadia to the south
of the Caspian Gates, according to Apollodorus of Artemita.

7. The greater part of Media consists of high ground, and is
cold ; such are the mountains above Ecbatana, and the places
about Rhagae and the Caspian Gates, and the northern parts
in general extending thence as far as Matiane and Armenia.

' In the text xfifta^tov. Kramer suggests the reading ^aaiKuov.

B. XI. c. XIII. § 8, 9. MEDIA. 265

The country below the Caspian Gates consists of flat grounds
and valleys. It is very fertile, and produces everything except
the olive, or if it grows anywhere it does not yield oil, and is
dry. The country is peculiarly adapted, as well as Armenia,
for breeding horses. There is a meadow tract called Hippo-
botus, which is traversed by travellers on their way from
Persia and Babylonia to the Caspian Gates. Here, it is said,
fifty thousand mares were pastured in the time of the Per-
sians, and were the king's stud. The Nesaean horses, the
best and largest in the king's province, were of this breed,
according to some writers, but according to others they came
from Armenia. Their shape is peculiar, as is that of the Par-
thian horses, compared with those of Greece and others in our
country.

The herbage which constitutes the chief food of the horses
we call peculiarly by the name of Medic, from its growing in
Media in great abundance. The country produces Silphium,*
from which is obtained the Medic juice, much inferior to the
Cyrenaic, but sometimes it excels the latter, which may be
accounted for by the difference of places, or from a change
the plant may undergo, or from the mode of extracting and
preparing the juice so as to continue good when laid by
for use.

8. Such then is the nature of the country with respect to
magnitude ; its length and breadth are nearly equal. The
greatest breadth (length P)^ however seems to be that reckoned
from the pass across the Zagrus, which is called the Median
Gate, to the Caspian Gates, through the country of ,Sigriana,
4100 stadia.

The account of the tribute paid agrees with the extent and
wealth of the country. Cappadocia paid to the Persians
yearly, in addition to a tribute in silver, 1500 horses, 2000
mules, and 50,000 sheep, and the Medes contributed nearly
double this amount.

9. Many of their customs are the same as those of the Arme-
nians, from the similarity of the countries which they in-
habit. The Medes however were the first to communicate
them to the Armenians, and still before that time to the Per-
sians, who were their masters, and successors in the empire
of Asia.

' Lucerne? ' Groskurd proposes " length."

266 8TRAB0. Casaub. 626.

The Persian stole, as it is now called, the pursuit of archery
and horsemanship, the court paid to their kings, their attire,
and veneration fitting for gods paid by the subjects to the
prince, — these the Persians derived from the Medes. That
this is the fact appears chiefly from their dress. A tiara, a
citaris, a hat,^ tunics with sleeves reaching to the hands, and
trowsers, are proper to be worn in cold and northerly places,
such as those in Media, but they are not by any means adapt-
ed to inhabitants of the south. The Persians had their
principal settlements on the Gulf of Persia, being situated
more to the south than the Babylonians and the Susii. But
after the overthrow of the Medes they gained possession of
some tracts of country contiguous to Media. The custom
however of the vanquished appeared to the conquerors to be
so noble, and appropriate to royal state, that instead of naked-
ness or scanty clothing, they endured the use of the feminine
stole, and were entirely covered with dress to the feet.

10. Some writers say that Medeia, when with Jason she
ruled in these countries, introduced this kind of dress, and
concealed her countenance as often as she appeared in public
in place of the king ; that the memorials of Jason are, the
Jasonian heroa,^ held in great reverence by the Barbarians,
(besides a great mountain above the Caspian Gates on the
left hand, called Jasonium,) and that the memorials of Medeia
are the kind of dress, and the name of the country. Medus, her
son, is said to have been her successor in the kingdom, and
the country to have been called after his name. In agreement
with this are the Jasonia in Armenia, the name of the coun-
try, and many other circumstances which we shall mention.

11. It is a Median custom to elect the bravest person as
king, but this does not generally prevail, being confined to
the mountain tribes. The custom for the kings to have many
wives is more general, it is found among all the mountaineers
also, but they are not permitted to have less than five. In the
same manner the women think it honourable for husbands to
have as many wives as possible, and esteem it a misfortune if
they have less than five.

While the rest of Media is very fertile, the northern and
mountainous part is barren. The people subsist upon tlie
produce of trees. They make cakes of apples, sliced and
' TrlXog. 2 Heroic monuments of Jason.

B. XI. c. XIV. § 1, 2. ARMENIA. 267

dried, and bread of roasted almonds ; they express a wine
from some kind of roots. They eat the flesh of wild animals,
and do not breed any tame animals. So much then respect-
ing the Medes. As to the laws and customs in common use
throughout the whole of Media, as they are the same as those
of the Persians in consequence of the establishment of the
Persian empire, I shall speak of them when I give an ac-
count of the latter nation.

CHAPTER XIV.

1. The southern parts of Armenia lie in front of the Tau-
rus, which separates Armenia from the whole of the country
situated between the Euphrates and the Tigris, and which is
called Mesopotamia. The eastern parts are contiguous to
the Greater Media, and to Atropatene. To the north are the
range of the mountains of Parachoathras lying above the
Caspian Sea, the Albanians, Iberians, and the Caucasus. The
Caucasus encircles these nations, and approaches close to the
Armenians, the Moschic and Colchic mountains, and ex-
tends as far as the country of the people called Tibareni. On
the west are these nations and the mountains Paryadres and
Scydises, extending to the Lesser Armenia, and the country
on the side of the Euphrates, which divides Armenia from
Cappadocia and Commagene.

2. The Euphrates rises in the northern side of the Tau-
rus, and flows at first towards the west through Armenia, it
then makes a bend to the south, and intersects the Taurus
between the Armenians, Cappadocians, and Commageni.
Then issuing outwards and entering Syria, it turns towards
the winter sun-rise as far as Babylon, and forms Mesopotamia
with the Tigris. Both these rivers terminate in the Persian
Gulf.

Such is the nature of the places around Armenia, almost
all of them mountainous and rugged, except a few tracts
which verge towards Media.

To the above-mentioned Taurus, which commences again
in the country on the other side of the Euphrates, occupied

268 STRABO. Casaub. 527.

by the Commageni, and Meliteni formed by the Euphrates,
belongs Mount Masius, which is situated on the south above
the Mygdones in Mesopotamia, in whose territory is Nisibis ;
on the northern parts is Sophene, lying between the Masius
and Anti-Taurtis. Anti-Taurus begins from the Euphrates and
the Taurus, and terminates at the eastern parts of Armenia,
enclosing within it Sophene. It has on the other side Acili-
sene, which lies between [Anti-] Taurus and the bed of the
Euphrates before it turns to the south. The royal city of
Sophene is Carcathiocerta.^

Above Mount Masius far to the east along Gordyene is the
Niphates, then the Abus,^ from which flow both the Euphrates
and the Araxes, the former to the west, the latter to the east ;
then the Nibarus, which extends as far as Media.

3. We have described the course of the Euphrates. The
Araxes, after running to the east as far as Atropatene, makes
a bend towards the west and north. It then first flows beside
Azara, then by Artaxata,^ a city of the Armenians ; afterwards
it passes through the plain of Araxenus to discharge itself
into the Caspian Sea.

4. There are many mountains in Armenia, and many
mountain plains, in which not even the vine grows. There
are also many valleys, some are moderately fertile, others
are very productive, as the Araxenian plain, through which
the river Araxes flows to the extremities of Albania, and
empties itself into the Caspian Sea. Next is Sacasene,
which borders upon Albania, and the river Cyrus ; then
Gogarene. All this district abounds with products of the soil,
cultivated fruit trees and evergreens. It bears also the olive.

There is Phauene, (Phanenae, Phasiana ?) a province of Ar-
menia, Comisene, and Orchistene, which furnishes large bo-
dies of cavalry.

* Kharput.

^ An almost uniform tradition has pointed out an isolated peak of this
range as the Ararat of Scripture. It is still called Ararat or Agri-Dagh,
and by the Persians Kuh-il-Nuh, mountain of Noah. Smith.

3 Formerly the mass of ruins called Takt-Tiridate, (Throne of Tiri-
dates,) near the junction of the Aras and the Zengue, were supposed to
represent the ancient Artaxata. Col. Monteith fixes the site at a remark-
able bend of the river somewhat lower down than this. See Smith, art.
Artaxata.

». XI. c. XIV. § 5, 6. ARMENIA. 269

Chorzene ^ and Cambysene are the most northerly countries,
and particularly subject to falls of snow. They are contigu-
ous to the Caucasian mountains, to Iberia, and Colchis.
Here, they say, on the passes over mountains, it frequently
happens that whole companies of persons have been over-
whelmed in violent snow-storms. Travellers are provided
against such dangerous accidents with poles, which they force
upwards to the surface of the snow, for the purpose of breath-
ing, and of signifying their situation to other travellers who
may come that way, so that they may receive assistance, be
extricated, and so escape alive.

They say that hollow masses are consolidated in the snow,
which contain good water, enveloped as in a coat ; that ani-
mals are bred in the snow, which Apollonides caU scoleces,^
and Theophanes, thripes, and that these hollow masses con
tain good water, which is obtained by breaking open their
coats or coverings. The generation of these animals is sup-
posed to be similar to that of the gnats, (or mosquitos,) from
flames, and the sparks in mines.

5. According to historians, Armenia, which was formerly
a small country, was enlarged by Artaxias and Zariadris,
who had been generals of Antiochus the Great, and at last,
after his overthrow, when they became kings, (the former
of Sophene, Acisene, (Amphissene ?) Odomantis, and some
other places, the latter of the country about Artaxata,) they
simultaneously aggrandized themselves, by taking away por-
tions of the territory of the surrounding nations : from the
Medes they took the Caspiana, Phaunitis, and Basoropeda ;
from the Iberians, the country at the foot of the Pary-
adres, the Chorzene, and Gogarene, which is on the other
side of the Cyrus ; from the Chalybes, and the Mosynceci,
Carenitis and Xerxene, which border upon the Lesser Arme-
nia, or are even parts of it ; from the Cataones, Acilisene,^
and the country about the Anti-Taurus ; from the Syrians,
Taronitis ; ^ hence they all speak the same language.

6. The cities of Armenia are Artaxata, called also Artax-

* Kars is the capital of this country.

2 (TKui\t]KaQ and OpliraG, species of worms. See Smith, art. Chorzene.

* Melitene. Groskurd.

* It corresponds, Kramer observes, with Taron, a province of Armenia,
which is called by Tacitus, Ann. xiv. 24, Taraunitium (not Tarani-
tium) regio.

270 STRABO. Casatjb. 529.

iasata, built by Hannibal for the king Artaxias, and Arxata,
both situated on the Araxes ; Arxata on the confines of
Atropatia, and Artaxata near the Araxenian plain; it is
well inhabited, and the seat of the kings of the country. It
lies upon a peninsular elbow of land ; the river encircles the
walls except at the isthmus, which is enclosed by a ditch
and rampart.

Not far from the city are the treasure-storehouses of Ti-
granes and Artavasdes, the strong fortresses Babyrsa, and
Olane. There were others also upon the Euphrates. Ador,
(Addon ?) the governor of the fortress, occasioned the revolt
of ArtagerjB, but the generals of Caesar retook it after a
long siege, and destroyed the walls.

7. There are many rivers in the country. The most cele-
brated are the Phasis and Lycus ; they empty themselves
into the Euxine ; (Eratosthenes instead of the Lycus men-
tions the Thermodon, but erroneously ;) the Cyrus and the
Araxes into the Caspian, and the Euphrates and the Tigris
into the Persian Gulf.

8. There are also large lakes in Armenia ; one the Man-
tiane,^ which word translated signifies Cyane, or Blue, the
largest salt-water lake, it is said, after the Palus Ma^otis, ex-
tending as far as (Media-) Atropatia. It has salt pans for
the concretion of salt.

The next is Arsene,^ which is also called Thopitis. Its
waters contain nitre, and are used for cleaning and fulling
clothes. It is unfit by these qualities for drinking. The
Tigris passes through this lake^ after issuing from the moun-
tainous country near the Niphates, and by its rapidity keeps
its stream unmixed with the water of the lake, whence it has
its name, for the Medes call an arrow, Tigris. This river
contains fish of various kinds, but the lake one kind only.

^ We shoTild read probably Matiane. The meaning of the word pro-
posed by Strabo may easily be proved to be incorrect, by reference to
the Armenian language, in which no such word is to be found bearing
this sense. As Kapoit in the Armenian tongue signifies " blue," this ex-
planation of Strabo's appears to refer to the lake Spauta or Kapauta,
above, c. xiii. § 2. Kramer.

2 The lake Arsissa, Thospitis or Van.

' This is an error ; one of the branches of the Tigris rises among the
mountains on the S. W. of the lake Van, and which form part of the
range of Nepat-Leam or Niphates.

B. XI. c. XIV. § 9—11. ARMENIA. 271

At the extremity of the lake the river falls into a deep cavity
in the earth. After pursuing a long course under-ground, it
re-appears in the Chalonitis ; thence it goes to Opis, and to
the wall of Semiramis, as it is called, leaving the Gordysei ^
and the whole of Mesopotamia on the right hand. The Eu-
phrates, on the contrary, has the same country on the left.
Having approached one another, and formed Mesopotamia, one
traverses Seleucia in its course to the Persian Gulf, the other
Babylon, as I have said in replying to Eratosthenes and
Hipparchus.

9. There are mines of gold in the Hyspiratis,^ near Ca-
balla. Alexander sent Menon to the mines with a body of
soldiers, but he was strangled^ by the inhabitants of the coun-
try. There are other mines, and also a mine of Sandyx as
it is called, to which is given the name of Armenian colour,
it resembles the Calche.'^

This country is so well adapted, being nothing inferior in this
respect to Media, for breeding horses, that the race of Nestean
horses, which the kings of Persia used, is found here also ;
the satrap of Armenia used to send annually to the king
of Persia 20,000 foals at the time of the festival of the Mi-
thracina. Artavasdes, when he accompanied Antony in his
invasion of Media, exhibited, besides other bodies of cavalry,
6000 horse covered with complete armour drawn up in array.

Not only do the Medes and Armenians, but the Albanians
also, admire this kind of cavalry, for the latter use horses
covered with armour.

10. Of the riches and power of this country, this is no
slight proof, that when Pompey imposed upon Tigranes, the
father of Artavasdes, the payment of 6000 talents of silver, he
immediately distributed the money among the Roman army,
to each soldier 50 drachmae, 1000 to a centurion, and a talent
to a Hipparch and a Chiliarch.

11. Theophanes represents this as the size of the country ;
its breadth to be 100 schoeni, and its length double this num-
ber, reckoning the schoenus at 40 stadia ; but this comput-
ation exceeds the truth. It is nearer the truth to take the

' The Kurds. 2 Groskurd proposes Syspiritis.

2 cnrrjyxGf}- Meinehe.

* It is doubtful whether this colour was red, blue, or purple.

272 STRABO Casaub. 630.

length as he has given it, and the breadth at one half, or a
little more.

Such then is the nature of the country of Armenia, and its
power.

12. There exists an ancient account of the origin of this
nation to the following effect. Armenus of Armenium, a Thes-
salian city, which lies between Pherse and Larisa on the lake
Boebe, accompanied Jason, as we have already said, in his ex-
pedition into Armenia, and from Armenus the country had
its name, according to Cyrsilus the Pharsalian and Medius
the Larisagan, persons who had accompanied the army of
Alexander. Some of the followers of Armenus settled in
Acilisene, which was formerly subject to the Sopheni ; others
in the Sy spirit! s, and spread as far as Calachene and Adia-
bene, beyond the borders of Armenia.

The dress of the Armenian people is said to be of Thessa-
lian origin ; such are the long tunics, which in tragedies are call-
ed Thessalian ; they are fastened about the body with a girdle,
and with a clasp on the shoulder. The tragedians, for they
required some additional decoration of this kind, imitate the
Thessalians in their attire. The Thessalians in particular,
from wearing a long dress, (probably because they inhabit the
most northerly and the coldest country in all Greece,) afford-
ed the most appropriate subject of imitation to actors for their
theatrical representations. The passion for riding and the
care of horses characterize the Thessalians, and are common
to Armenians and Medes.

The Jasonia are evidence of the expedition of Jason : some
of these memorials the sovereigns of the country restored, as
Parmenio restored the temple of Jason at Abdera.

1 3. It is supposed that Armenus and his companions called
the Araxes by this name on account of its resemblance to
the Peneius, for the Peneius had the name of Araxes from
bursting through Tempe, and rending (aTrapo^at) Ossa from
Olympus. The Araxes also in Armenia, descending from the
mountains, is said to have spread itself in ancient times, and
to have overflowed the plains, like a sea, having no outlet ;
that Jason, in imitation of what is to be seen at Tempe, made
the opening through which the water at present precipitates
itself into the Caspian Sea; that upon this the Araxenian

B. XI. c. XIV. § 14, 15. ARMENIA. 273

plain, through which the river flows to the cataract, became
uncovered. This story which is told of the river Araxes
contains some probability ; that of Herodotus ^ none whatever.
For he says that, after flowing out of the country of the Ma-
tiani, it is divided into forty rivers, and separates the Scythians
from the Bactrians. Callisthenes has followed Herodotus.

14. Some tribes of jEnianes are mentioned, some of whom
settled in Vitia, others above the Armenians beyond the Abus
and the Nibarus. These latter are branches of Taurus ; the
Abus is near the road which leads to Ecbatana by the temple
of Baris (Zaris ?).

Some tribes of Thracians, surnamed Saraparae, or decapi-
tators, are said to live above Armenia, near the Gouranii and
Medes. They are a savage people, intractable mountaineers,
and scalp and decapitate strangers ; for such is the meaning
of the term Saraparae.

I have spoken of Medeia in the account of Media, and it is
conjectured from all the circumstances that the Medes and
Armenians are allied in some way to the Thessalians, de-
scended from Jason and Medeia.

15. This is the ancient account, but the more recent, and
extending from the time of the Persians to our own age, may
be given summarily, and in part only (as follows) ; Persians
and Macedonians gained possession of Armenia, next those
who were masters of Syria and Media. The last was Orontes,
a descendant of Hydarnes, one of the seven Persians : it was
then divided into two portions by Artaxias and Zariadris,
generals of Antiochus the Great, who made war against the
Romans. These were governors by permission of the king,
but upon his overthrow they attached themselves to the Ro-
mans, were declared independent, and had the title of kings.
Tigranes was a descendant of Artaxias, and had Armenia,
properly so called. This country was contiguous to Media,
to the Albani, and to the Iberes, and extended as far as Col-
chis, and Cappadocia upon the Euxine.

Artanes the Sophenian was the descendant of Zaria-
dris, and had the southern parts of Armenia, which verge
rather to the west. He was defeated by Tigranes, who be-
came master of the whole country. He had experienced
many vicissitudes of fortune. At first he had served as a
» Herod, i. 202.

VOL. II. T

274 STRABO. Casaub. 532.

hostage among the Parthians ; then by their means he return-
ed to his country, in compensation for which service they ob-
tained seventy valleys in Armenia. When he acquired power,
he recovered these valleys, and devastated the country of the
Parthians, the territory about Ninus, and that about Arbela.*
He subjected to his authority the Atropatenians, and the
Gordyaeans ; by force of arms he obtained possession also of
the rest of Mesopotamia, and, after crossing the Euphrates, of
Syria and Phoenicia. Having attained this height of pros-
perity, he even founded near Iberia,^ between this country
and the Zeugma on the Euphrates, a city, which he named
Tigranocerta, and collected inhabitants out of twelve Grecian
cities, which he had depopulated. But Lucullus, who had
commanded in the war against Mithridates, surprised him,
thus engaged, and dismissed the inhabitants to their respect-
ive homes. The buildings which were half finished he de-
molished, and left a small village remaining. He drove Ti-
granes both out of Syria and Phoenicia.

Artavasdes, his successor, prospered as long as he con-
tinued a friend of the Romans. But having betrayed An-
tony to the Parthians in the war with that people, he suffered
punishment for his treachery. He was carried in chains to
Alexandria, by order of Antony, led in procession through
the city, and kept in prison for a time. On the breaking
out of the Actiac war he was then put to death. Many
kings reigned after Artavasdes, who were dependent upon
Caesar and the Romans. ■ The country is still governed in
the same manner.

16. Both the Modes and Armenians have adopted all the
sacred rites of the Persians, but the Armenians pay particu-
lar reverence to Anai'tis, and have built temples to her hon-
our in several places, especially in Acilisene. They dedicate
there to her service male and female slaves ; in this there
is nothing remarkable, but it is surprising that persons of the
highest rank in the nation consecrate their virgin daughters
to the goddess. It is customary for these women, after being

' Arbil.

' That this is an error is manifest. Falconer proposes Armenia; Gros-
kurd, Assyria ; but what name is to be supplied is altogether uncertain.
The name of the city is also wanting, according to Kramer, who proposes
Nisibis.

B. XI. c. XIV. § 16. ARMENIA. 275

prostituted a long period at the temple of AnaTtis, to be dis-
posed of in marriage, no one disdaining a connexion with
such persons. Herodotus mentions something similar re-
specting the Lydian women, all of whom prostitute them-
selves. But they treat their paramours with much kindness,
they entertain them hospitably, and frequently make a return
of more presents than they receive, being amply supplied
with means derived from their wealthy connexions. They
do not admit into their dwellings accidental strangers, but
prefer those of a rank equal to their own.

T 2

BOOK XII.
CAPPADOCIA.

The Twelfth Book contains the remainder of Pontus, viz. Cappadocia, Gala
tia, Bithynia, Mysia, Phrygia, and Maeonia : the cities, Sinope in Pontus,
Heracleia, and Amaseia, and likewise Isauria, Lycia, Pamphylia, and
Cilicia, with the islands lying along the coast ; the mountains and rivers.

CHAPTER I.

1. * Cappadocia consists of mauy parts, and has expe-
rienced frequent changes.

The nations speaking the same language are chiefly those
who are bounded on the south by the Cilician Taurus,^ as it
is called ; on the east by Armenia, Colchis, and by the inter-
vening nations who speak different languages ; on the north
by the Euxine, as far as the mouth of the Halys ;^ on the west
by the Paphlagonians, and by the Galatians, who migrated
into Phrygia, and spread themselves as far as Lycaonia, and
the Cilicians, who occupy Cilicia Tracheia (Cilicia the moun-
tainous).*

2. Among the nations that speak the same language, the
ancients placed the Cataonians by themselves, contra-dis-
tinguishing them from the Cappadocians, whom they con-
sidered as a different people. In the enumeration of the nations
they placed Cataonia after Cappadocia, then the Euphrates,
and the nations on the other side of that river, so as to
include even Melitene in Cataonia, although Melitene lies
between Cataonia and the Euphrates, approaches close to
Commagene, and constitutes a tenth portion of Cappadocia,

' The beginning is wanting, according to the opinion of critics, Xy-
lander, Casaubon, and others.

2 The range of mountains to the S. of Caramania.

3 Kizil-Irmak. " Itsch-Ili.

B. XII. c. I. § 3, 4. CAPPADOCIA. 277

according to the division of the country into ten provinces.
For the kings in our times who preceded Archelaus^ usually
divided the kingdom of Cappadocia in this manner.

Cataonia is a tenth portion of Cappadocia. In our time
each province had its own governor, and since no difference
appears in the language of the Cataonians compared with
that of the other Cappadocians, nor any difference in their
customs, it is surprising how entirely the characteristic marks
of a foreign nation have disappeared, yet they were distinct
nations ; Ariarathes, the first who bore the title of king of
the Cappadocians, annexed the Cataonians to Cappadocia.

3. This country composes the isthmus, as it were, of a
large peninsula formed by two seas ; by the bay of Issus, ex-
tending to Cilicia Tracheia, and by the Euxine lying between
Sinope and the coast of the Tibareni.

The isthmus cuts off what we call the peninsula ; the whole
tract lying to the west of the Cappadocians, to which Hero-
dotus ^ gives the name of the country within the Halys. This
is the country the whole of which was the kingdom of Croesus.
Herodotus calls him king of the nations on this side the river
Halys. But writers of the present time give the name of
Asia, which is the appellation of the whole continent, to the
country within the Taurus.

This Asia comprises, first, the nations on the east, Paphla-
gonians, Phrygians, and Lycaonians ; then Bithynians, My-
sians, and the Epictetus ; besides these, Troas, and Helles-
pontia ; next to these, and situated on the sea, are the jEolians
and lonians, who are Greeks ; the inhabitants of the remain-
ing portions are Carians and Lycians, and in the inland parts
are Lydians.

We shall speak hereafter of the other nations.

4. The Macedonians obtained possession of Cappadocia
after it had been divided by the Persians into two satrapies,
and permitted, partly with and partly without the consent of
the people, the satrapies to be altered to two kingdoms, one
of which they called Cappadocia Proper, and Cappadocia

' Archelaus received from Augustus (b. c. 20) some parts of Cilicia
on the coast and the Lesser Armenia. In a. d. 15 Tiberius treacherously-
invited him to Rome, and kept him there. He died, probably about
A. D. 17, and his kingdom was made a Roman province.

2 Herod, i. 6, 28.

278 STRABO. Casaub. 534.

near the Taurus, or Cappadocia the Great ; the other they
called Pontus, but according to other writers, Cappadocia on
Pontus.

We are ignorant at present how Cappadocia the Great
was at first distributed ; upon the death of Archelaus the
king, Caesar and the senate decreed that it should be a Ro-
man province. But when the country was divided in the
time of Archelaus and of preceding kings into ten pro-
vinces, they reckoned five near the Taurus, Melitene, Cataonia,
Cilicia, Tyanltis, and Garsauritis ; the remaining five were
Laviansene, Sargarausene, Saravene, Chamanene, Morimene.
The Romans afterwards assigned to the predecessors of Ar-
chelaus an eleventh province formed out of Cilicia, consist-
ing of the country about Castabala and Cybistra,' extending
to Derbe, belonging to Antipater, the robber. Cilicia Tra-
chea about Elaeussa was assigned to Archelaus, and all the
country which served as the haunts of pirates.

CHAPTER 11.

1. Melitene resembles Commagene, for the whole of it is
planted with fruit-trees, and is the only part of all Cappadocia
which is planted in this manner. It produces oil, and the
wine Monarites, which vies vsdth the wines of Greece. It is
situated opposite to Sophene, having the river Euphrates
flowing between it and Commagene, which borders upon it.
In the country on the other side of the river is Tomisa, a
considerable fortress of the Cappadocians. It was sold to the
prince of Sophene for a hundred talents. Lucullus presented
it afterwards as a reward of valour to the Cappadocian prince
for his services in the war against Mithridates.

2. Cataonia is a plain, wide and hollow,^ and produces
everything except evergreen trees. It is surrounded by
mountains, and among others by the Amanus on the side to-
wards the south, a mass separated from the Cilician Taurus,
and also by the Anti-Taurus,^ a mass rent off in a contrary

* Eregli near the lake Al-gol.

* That is, surrounded by mountains, as below.

' The range on the west of the river Sarus, Seichun, now bearing vari-
ous names.

B. XII. c. II. § 3, 4. CATAONIA. 279

direction. The Amanus extends from Cataonia to Cilicia, and
the Syrian sea towards the west and south. In this intervening
space it comprises the whole of the gulf of Issus, and the
plains of the Cilicians which lie towards the Taurus. But
the Anti-Taurus inclines to the north, and a little also to the
east, and then terminates in the interior of the country.

3. In the Anti-Taurus are deep and narrow valleys, in
which is situated Comana,^ and the temple of Enyus (Bellona),
which they call Ma. It is a considerable city. It contains
a very great multitude of persons who at times are actuated
by divine impulse, and of servants of the temple. It is in-
habited by Cataonians, who are chiefly under the command of
the priest, but in other respects subject to the king. The
former presides over the temple, and has authority over the
servants belonging to it, who, at the time that I was there,
exceeded in number six thousand persons, including men and
women. A large tract of land adjoins the temple, the revenue
of which the priest enjoys. He is second in rank in Cappa-
docia after the king, and, in general, the priests are descended
from the same family as the kings. Orestes, when he came
hither with his sister Iphigenia from Tauric Scythia,^ is
thought to have introduced the sacred rites performed in
honour of Diana Tauropolus, and to have deposited here the
tresses (Coman, Ko^rjv) of mourning, from which the city had
the name of Comana.

The river Sarus flows through this city, and passes out
through the valleys of the Taurus to the plains of Cilicia, and
to the sea lying below them.

4. The Pyramus,^ which has its source in the middle of the
plain, is navigable throughout Cataonia. There is a large sub-
terraneous channel, through which the water flows underground
to a great distance, and then may be seen springing up again to
the surface. If an arrow is let down into the pit from above, the
resistance of the water is so great that it is scarcely immersed.
Although it pursues its course with great '^ depth and breadth,
it undergoes an extraordinary contraction of its size by the
time it has reached the Taurus. There is also an extra-
ordinary fissure in the mountain, through which the stream is
carried. For, as in rocks which have burst and split in two

^ Supposed to be Al-Bostan. ^ The Crimea.

• Dschehan-Tschai. ♦ The text is here corrupt.

280 STRABO. Casaub. 636.

parts, the projections in one correspond so exactly with the
hollows in the other that they might even be fitted together,
so here I have seen the rocks at the distance of two or three
plethra, overhanging the river on each side, and nearly reach-
ing to the summit of the mountain, with hollows on one side
answering to projections on the other. The bed between (the
mountains) is entirely rock ; it has a deep and very narrow
fissure through the middle, so that a dog and a hare might
leap across it. This is the channel of the river ; it is full to
the margin, and in breadth resembles a canal. ^ But on ac-
count of the winding of its course, the great contraction of
the stream, and the depth of the ravine, a noise, like that of
thunder, strikes at a distance on the ears of those who ap-
proach it. In passing out through the mountains, it brings
down from Cataonia, and from the Cilician plains, so great a
quantity of alluvial soil to the sea, that an oracle to the follow-
ing effect is reported to have been uttered respecting it :

" The time will come, when Pyramus, with its deep whirlpools, by ad-
vancing on the sea-shore, will reach the sacred Cyprus."

Something similar to this takes place in Egypt. The Nile
is continually converting the sea into continent by an accu-
mulation of earth ; accordingly Herodotus calls Egypt a gift
of the river, and Homer says, that the Pharos was formerly
out at sea, not as it is at present connected with the main-
land of Egypt.

5. [The third 2 in rank is the Dacian priesthood of Jupiter,
inferior to this, but still of importance.] There is at this
place a body of salt water, having the circumference of a con-
siderable lake. It is shut in by lofty and perpendicular hills,
so that the descent is by steps. The water it is said does not
increase in quantity, nor has it anywhere an apparent outlet.

6. Neither the plain of the Cataonians nor Melitene have
any city, but strongholds upon the mountains, as Azamora, and
Dastarcum, round which runs the river Carmalas.^- There
is also the temple of the Cataonian Apollo, which is vener-

» The reading is doubtful.

' The passage is corrupt. Groskurd proposes Asbamean in place of
Dacian, mention being made of a temple of Asbamean Jove in Amm.
Marcell. xxiii. 6. Kramer also suggests the transposition of this sentence
to the end of § 6.

^ Probably the Kermel-su, a branch of the Pyramus.

B. xii. c. II. § 7. CAPPADOCIA. 281

ated throughout the whole of Cappadocia, and which the
Cappadocians have taken as a model of their own temples.
Nor have the other provinces, except two, any cities. Of the
rest, Sargarausene has a small town Herpa, and a river Car-
malas, which also discharges itself into the Cilician sea.^ In
the other provinces is Argos, a lofty fortress near the Taurus,
and Nora, now called Neroassus, in which Eumenes sustained
a long siege. In our time it was a treasure-hold of Sisinus,
who attempted to take possession of the kingdom of Cappa-
docia. To him belonged Cadena, a royal seat, built after the
form of a city. Situated upon the borders of Lycaonia is
Garsauira, a village town, said to have been formerly the
capital of the country.

In Morimene, among the Venasii, is a temple of Jupiter,
with buildings capable of receiving nearly three thousand ser-
vants of the temple. It has a tract of sacred land attached to
it, very fertile, and affording to the priest a yearly revenue of
fifteen talents. The priest is appointed for life like the priest
at Comana, and is next to him in rank.

7. Two provinces only have cities. In the Tyanitis is
Tyana,^ lying at the foot of the Taurus at the Cilician Gates,'
where are the easiest and the most frequented passes into
Cilicia and Syria. It is called, "Eusebeia at the Taurus."
Tyanitis is fertile, and the greatest part of it consists of
plains. Tyana is built upon the mound of Semiramis, which
is fortified with good walls. At a little distance from this
city are Castabala and Cybistra, towns which approach still
nearer to the mountain. At Castabala is a temple of Diana
Perasia, where, it is said, the priestesses walk with naked
feet unhurt upon burning coals. To this place some persons
apply the story respecting Orestes and Diana Tauropolus, and
say that the goddess was called Perasia, because she was con-
veyed from beyond (Tripadev) sea.

In Tyanitis, one of the ten provinces above mentioned, is
the city Tyana. But with these I do not reckon the cities
that were afterwards added, Castabala, and Cybistra, and
those in Cilicia Tracheia, to which belongs Elaeussa, a small

1 There is some confusion in this statement.

' Kara-Hissar.

^ Between the mountains Bulghar-Dagh and Allah-Dagh.

282 STRABO. Casaub. 538.

fertile island, which Archelaus furnished with excellent
buildings, where he passed the greater part of his time.

In the Cilician province, as it is called, is Mazaca,^ the
capital of the nation. It is also called " Eusebeia," with the
addition " at the Argasus," for it is situated at the foot of the
Argaeus,'-^ the highest mountain in that district ; its summit is
always covered with snow. Persons who ascend it (but
they are not many) say that both the Euxine and the sea of
Issus may be seen from thence in clear weather.

Mazaca is not adapted in other respects by nature for the
settlement of a city, for it is without water, and unfortified.
Through the neglect of the governors, it is without walls, per-
haps intentionally, lest, trusting to the wall as to a fortification,
the inhabitants of a plain, which has hills situated above it, and
not exposed to the attacks of missile weapons, should addict
themselves to robbery. The country about, although it con-
sists of plains, is entirely barren and uncultivated, for the soil
is sandy, and rocky underneath. At a little distance further
there are burning plains, and pits full of fire to an extent of
many stadia, so that the necessaries of life are brought from a
distance. What seems to be a peculiar advantage (abundance
of wood) is a source of danger. For though nearly the whole
of Cappadocia is without timber, the Argaeus is surrounded
by a forest, so that wood may be procured near at hand, yet
even the region lying below the forest contains fire in many
parts, and springs of cold water ; but as neither the fire nor
the water break out upon the surface, the greatest part of the
country is covered with herbage. In some parts the bottom
is marshy, and flames burst out from the ground by night.
Those acquainted with the country collect wood with caution ;
but there is danger to others, and particularly to cattle, which
fall into these hidden pits of fire.

8. In the plain in front of the city, and about 40 stadia
from it, is a river of the name of Melas,^ whose source is in
ground lower than the level of the city. It is useless to the

* Kaisarieh.

^ Edsehise-Dagh, the highest peak, has been estimated at 13,000 feet
above the sea.

' Tlie Kara-su, the black river, a branch of the Kizil-Irmak. The
modern name appears common to many rivers.

B. XII. c. 11. § 9. CAPPADOCIA. 283

inhabitants, because it does not flow from an elevated situation.
It spreads abroad in marshes and lakes, and in the summer-
time corrupts the air round the city. A valuable stone
quarry is rendered almost useless by it. For there are ex-
tensive beds of stone, from which the Mazaceni obtain an
abundant supply of materials for building, but the slabs, be-
ing covered with water, are not easily detached by the work-
men. These are the marshes which in every part are subject
to take fire.

Ariarathes the king filled in some narrow channels by
which the Melas entered the Halys, and converted the neigh-
bouring plain into a wide lake. There he selected some small
islands like the Cyclades, where he passed his time in boyish
and frivolous diversions. The barrier, however, was broken
down all at once, and the waters again flowed abroad and
swelled the Halys, which swept away a large part of the Cap-
padocian territory, and destroyed many buildings and planta-
tions ; it also damaged a considerable part of the country of
the Galatians, who occupy Phrygia. In compensation for
this injury he paid a fine of three hundred talents to the in-
habitants, who had referred the matter to the decision of the
Romans. The same was the case at Herpa ; for he there
obstructed the stream of the Carmalas, and, on the bursting
of the dyke, the water damaged some of the places in the
Cilician territories about Mallus ; he was obliged to make
compensation to those who had sustained injury.

9. Although the territory of the Mazaceni is destitute in
many respects of natural advantages, it seems to have been
preferred by the kings as a place of residence, because it was
nearest the centre of those districts which supplied timber,
stone for building, and fodder, of which a very large quantity
was required for the subsistence of their cattle. Their city
was almost a camp. The security of their persons and trea-
sure^ depended upon the protection afforded by numerous
fortresses, some of which belonged to the king, others to their
friends.

Mazaca is distant from Pontus ^ about 800 stadia to the
south, and from the Euphrates a little less than double that
distance ; from the Cilician Gates and the camp of Cyrus, a

' XptjfioLTbJv, the reading proposed by Kramer.
2 i. e. the kingdom of Pontus.

284 STRABO.- ' Casaub. 539.

journey of six days by way of Tyana,^ which is situated about
the middle of the route, and is distant from Cybistra 300
stadia. The Mazaceni adopt the laws of Charondas, and elect
a Nomodist, (or Chanter of the Laws,) who, like the Juris-
consults of the Romans, is the interpreter of their laws. Ti-
granes the Armenian, when he overran Cappadocia, treated
them with great severity. He forced them to abandon their
settlements, and go into Mesopotamia ; they peopled Tigrano-
certa, chiefly by their numbers. Afterwards, upon the cap-
ture of Tigranocerta, those who were able returned to their
own country.

10. The breadth of the country from Pontus to the Taurus is
about 1800 stadia ; the length from Lycaonia and Phrygia, as
far as the Euphrates to the east, and Armenia, is about 3000
stadia. The soil is fertile, and abounds with fruits of the
earth, particularly corn, and with cattle of all kinds. Although
it lies more to the south than Pontus, it is colder. Bagadania,
although a plain country, and situated more towards the south
than any district in Cappadocia, (for it lies at the foot of the
Taurus,) produces scarcely any fruit-bearing trees. It affords
pasture for wild asses, as does a large portion of the other
parts of the country, particularly that about Garsauira, Ly-
caonia, and Morimene.

In Cappadocia is found the red earth called the Sinopic,
which is better than that of any other country. The Spanish
only can rival it. It had the name of Sinopic, because the
merchants used to bring it down from Sinope, before the traffic
of the Ephesians extended as far as the people of Cappadocia.
It is said that even plates of crystal and of the onyx stone were
discovered by the miners of Archelaus near the country of the
Galatians. There was a place where was found a white stone
of the colour of ivory in pieces of the size of small whetstones,
from which were made handles for small swords. Another
place produced large masses of transparent stone for windows,
which were exported.

The boundary of Pontus and Cappadocia is a mountainous
range parallel to the Taurus, commencing from the western
extremities of Chammanene, (where stands Dasmenda, a fortress
built upon a precipice,) and extending to the eastern parts of

I Kara-Hissar.

B. xir. c. HI. § 1. PONTUS. 285

Laviansene. Both Chammanene and Laviansene are pro-
vinces of Cappadocia.

11. When the Romans, after the defeat of Antiochus, first
governed Asia, they made treaties of friendship and alliance
both with the nations and with the kings. This honour was
conferred upon the other kings separately and independently,
but upon the king of Cappadocia in common with the nation.
On the extinction of the royal race, the Romans admitted the
independence of the Cappadocians according to the treaty of
friendship and alliance which they had made with the nation.
The deputies excused themselves from accepting the liberty
which was ofiered to them, declaring that they were unable to
bear it, and requested that a king might be appointed. The
Romans were surprised that any people should be unwilling
to enjoy liberty, but permitted ^ them to elect by suffrage any
one they pleased from among themselves. They elected
Ariobarzanes. The race became extinct in the third gener-
ation. Archelaus, who was not connected with the nation,
was appointed king by Antony.

So much respecting the Greater Cappadocia.

With regard to Cilicia Tracheia, which was annexed to
the Greater Cappadocia, it will be better to describe it when
we give an account of the whole of Cilicia.

CHAPTER III.

1. MiTHRiDATES Eupator was appointed King of Pontus.
His kingdom consisted of the country bounded by the Halys,^
extending to the Tibareni,^ to Armenia, to the territory
within the Halys, extending as far as Amastris,'* and to some
parts of Paphlagonia. He annexed to (the kingdom of) Pontus
the sea-coast towards the west as far as Heracleia,^ the birth-
place of Heracleides the Platonic philosopher, and towards

' Du Theil quotes Justin, 38, c, 2, where it is stated that Ariobarzanes
was appointed king by the Romans. Probably the election was con-
firmed by the Senate.

2 Kizii-Irmak.

' Who lived on the west of the river Sidenus (Siddin).

* Amassera. ^ Erekli, or Benderegli.

286 STRABO. Casaub. 541.

the east, the country extending to Colchis, and the Lesser
Armenia. Pompey, after the overthrow of Mithridates, found
the kingdom comprised within these boundaries. He dis-
tributed the country towards Armenia and towards Colchis
among the princes who had assisted him in the war ; the re-
mainder he divided into eleven governments, and annexed
them to Bithynia, so that out of both there was formed one
province. Some people in the inland parts he subjected to the
kings descended from Pylaemenes, in the same manner as he
delivered over the Galatians to be governed by tetrarchs of
that nation.

In later times the Roman emperors made different divisions
of tlje same country, appointing kings and rulers, making
some cities free, and subjecting others to the authority of rulers,
others again were left under the dominion of the Roman people.

As we- proceed in our description according to the present
state of things, we shall touch slightly on their former con-
dition, whenever it may be useful.

I shall begin from Heracleia,^ which is the most westerly
of these places.

2. In sailing out of the Propontiji into the Euxine Sea, on
the left hand are the parts adjoining to Byzantium, (Con-
stantinople,) and these belong to the Thracians. The parts
on the left of the Pontus are called Aristera (or left) of Pon-
tus ; the parts on the right are contiguous to Chalcedon. Of
these the first tract of country belongs to the Biihynians, the
next to the Mariandyni, or, as some say, to the Caucones ; next
is that of the Paphlagonians, extending to the Halys, then that
of the Cappadocians near the Pontus, and then a district
reaching to Colchis.^ All this country has the name of the
Dexia (or right) of Pontus. This whole coast, from Col-
chis to Heracleia, was subject to Mithridates Eupator. But
the parts on the other side to the mouth of the Euxine and
Chalcedon, remained under the government of the king of
Bithynia. After the overthrow of the kings the Romans pre-
served the same boundaries of the kingdoms ; Heracleia was

' Erekli.

* The Bithynians, or rather Thyni, occupied the sea-coast from the
Bosphorus to tlie river Sagaris (Sakaria). The Mariandyni extended to
Heracleia (Erekli); and the Caucones to the east as far as the river
Parthenius (Tschati-su) .

B. XII. c. III. § 3—5. PONTUS. 287

annexed to Pontus, and the country beyond assigned to the
Bithynians.

3. It is generally acknowledged by writers, that the Bithy-
nians, who were formerly Mysians, received this name from
Bithynians and Thyni, Thracian people, who came and settled
among them. They advance as a proof of their statement,
first as regards the Bithynians, that there still exists in Thrace
a people called Bithynians, and then, as regards the Thyni,
that the sea-shore, near Apollonia ^ and Salmydessus,^ is called
Thynias. The Bebryces, who preceded them as settlers in
Mysia, were, as I conjecture, Thracians. We have said^ that
the Mysians themselves were a colony of those Thracians who
are now called Msesi.

Such is the account given of these people.

4. There is not, however, the same agreement among writers
with regard to the Mariandyni, and the Caucones. For they
say that Heracleia is situated among the Mariandyni, and was
founded by Milesians."* But who they are, or whence they
came, nothing is said. There is no difference in language,
nor any other apparent national distinction between them and
the Bithynians, whom they resemble in all respects. It is
probable therefore the Mariandyni were a Thracian tribe.

Theopompus says that Mariandynus, who governed a part
of Paphlagonia, which was subject to many masters, invaded
and obtained possession of the country of the Bebryces, and
that he gave his own name to the territory which he had be-
fore occupied. It is also said that the Milesians who first
founded Heracleia, compelled the Mariandyni, the former pos-
sessors of the place, to serve as Helots, and even sold them,
but not beyond the boundaries of their country. For they
were sold on the same conditions as the class of persons called
Mnoans, who were slaves to the Cretans, and the Penestae,^
who were slaves of the Thessalians.

5. The Caucones, who, according to history, inhabited the
line of sea-coast which extends from the Mariandyni as far as
the river Parthenius, and to whom belonged the city Tieium,^

* Sizeboli, south of the Gulf of Butgas. * Midjeh.
^ B. vii. c. iii. § 2.

* Kramer is of opinion that Strabo is mistaken in this account of the
origin of Heracleia.

* Athenaeus, b. vi. c. 85, vol. i. p. 414, Bohn's Class. Library. 6 Tilijos,

288 STRABO. Casaub. 542.

are said bj some writers to be Scythians, by others a tribe of
Macedonians, and by others a tribe of Pelasgi. We have
already spoken of these people elsewhere.^ Callisthenes in
his comment upon the enumeration of the ships inserts after
this verse,

"Cromna, iEgialus, and the lofty Erythini,"*
these lines,

" The brave son of Polycles led the Caucones,
Who inhabited the well-known dwellings about the river Parthenius,"

for the territory extends from Heracleia, and the Mariandyni
as far as the Leucosyri, whom we call Cappadocians. But
the tribe of the Caucones about Tieium extends to the Par-
thenius ; that of the Heneti, who occupy Cytorum,^ imme-
diately follows the Parthenius, and even at present some
Caucones are living about the Parthenius.

6. Heracleia is a city with a good harbour, and of import-
ance in other respects. It has sent out colonies, among which
are the Cherronesus,'* and the Callatis.^ It was once inde-
pendent, afterwards for some time it was under the power of
tyrants ; it again recovered its freedom ; but at last, when
subject to the Romans, it was governed by kings. It re-
ceived a colony of Romans, which was settled in a portion of
the city, and of its territory. A little before the battle of Ac-
tium, Adiatorix, the son of Domnecleius the tetrarch of Gala-
tia, who had received from Antony that portion of the city of
which the Heracleiotae were in possession, attacked the Ro-
mans by night, and put t^iem to death by the command, as he
said, of Antony ; but after the victory at Actium, he was led
in triumph, and put to death together with his son. The city
belongs to the province of Pontus, which was annexed to
Bithynia.

7. Between Chalcedon and Heracleia are several rivers, as
the Psillis,^ the Calpas, and the Sangarius, of which last the
poet makes mention.^ It has its source at the village Sangias,
at the distance of 150 stadia from Pessinus. It flows through

' B. viii. c. iii. § 17. ^ ^ jj §55. ^ Kidros.

♦ On the bay of the modem Sebastopol, b. vii. c. iv. § 2.

* Mangalia.

« Some of the smaller mountain streams which descend from the range
of hills extending from Scutari to the Sangaria. According to Gossellin
the Psillis may be the river near Tschileh, and the Calpas the river near
Kerpeh. ' II. xvi. 719.

B. xir. c. in. § 8. PONTUS 289

the greater part of Phrygia Epictetus, and a part also of
Bithynia, so that it is distant from Nicomedia a little more
than 300 stadia, where the river Gallus unites with it. The
latter river has its source at Modra in Phrygia on the Helles-
pont, which is the same country as the Epictetus, and was
formerly occupied by the Bithynians.

The Sangarius thus increased in bulk, and navigable, al-
though not so formerly, is the boundary of Bithynia at the part
of the coast where it discharges itself. In front of this coast
is the island Thynia.

In the territory of Heracleia grows the aconite.

This city is distant from the temple at Chalcedon about
1500, and from the Sangarius 500, stadia.

8. Tieium is now a small town and has nothing remarkable
belonging to it, except that it was the birth-place of Philetaerus,
the founder of the family of the Attalic kings.

Next is the river Parthenius, flowing through a country
abounding with flowers; from these it obtained its name.^
Its source is in Paphlagonia. Then succeeded Paphlagonia,
and the Heneti. It is a question what Heneti the poet
means, when he says,

" the brave Pylaemenes led the Paphlagonians out of the country of the
Heneti, where they have a race of wild mules ; " ^

for at present, they say, no Heneti are to be found in Paphla-
gonia. Others say that it is a village on the shore distant
ten schoeni from Amastris. But Zenodotus writes the verse
in this manner, " From Heneta," and says that it means the
present Amisus. According to others it was a tribe border-
ing upon the Cappadocians, which engaged in an expedition
with the Cimmerians, and were afterwards driven away into
Adria. But the account most generally received is, that the
Heneti were the most considerable tribe of the Paphlagonians ;
that Pylaemenes was descended from it ; that a large body of
this people accompanied him to the Trojan war ; that when
they had lost their leader they passed over to Thrace upon
the capture of Troy ; and in the course of their wanderings
arrived at the present Henetic territory.

Some writers say that both Antenor and his sons partici-
pated in this expedition, and settled at the inner recess of the

^ The virgin river, from its flowers and tranquil course. ^ II. ii. 851.

VOL. II. u

290 STRABO. * Casaub. 544.

gulf of Adria, as we have said in the description of Italy. ^ It
is probable that this was the cause of the extinction of the
Heneti, and that they were no longer to be found in Paphla-
gonia.

9. The boundary of the Paphlagonians to the east is the
river Halys, which flows from the south between the Syrians
and the Paphlagonians ; and according to Herodotus,^ (who
means Cappadocians, when he is speaking of Syrians,) dis-
charges itself into the Euxine Sea. Even at present they are
called Leuco- Syrians, (or White Syrians,) while those without
the Taurus are called Syrians. In comparison with the peo-
ple within the Taurus, the latter have a burnt complexion ;
but the former, not having it, received the appellation of Leuco-
Syrians (or White Syrians). Pindar says that

" the Amazons commanded a Syrian band, armed with spears with broad
iron heads;"

thus designating the people that lived at Themiscyra.^ The-
miscyra belongs to the Amiseni,^ and the district of the
Amiseni to the Leuco- Syrians settled beyond the Halys.

The river Halys forms the boundary of the Paphlagonians
to the east ; Phrygians and the Galatians settled among that
people, on the south ; and on the west Bithynians and Marian-
dyni (for the race of the Caucones has everywhere entirely
disappeared) ; on the north the Euxine. This country is
divided into two parts, the inland, and the maritime, extend-
ing from the Halys as far as Bithynia. Mithridates Eupator
possessed the maritime part as far as Heracleia, and of the
inland country he had the district nearest to Heracleia, some
parts of which extended even beyond the Halys. These are
also the limits of the Roman province of Pontus. The re-
mainder was subject to chiefs, even after the overthrow of
Mithridates.

We shall afterwards speak of those Paphlagonians in the
inland parts, who were not subject to Mithridates ; we propose
at present to describe the country which he governed, called
Pontus.

10. After the river Parthenius is Amastris, bearing the
same name as the princess by whom it was founded. It is

' B. V. c. i. § 4. 2 Herod, i. 6.

^ About the Thermodon, now Termeh.
* The country about Samsoun.

B. XII. c. III. § 11. PONTUS. SINOPE. 291

situated upon a peninsula, with harbours on each side of the
isthmus. Amastris was the wife of Dionysius, the tyrant of
Heracleia, and daughter of Oxyathres, the brother of the
Darius who fought against Alexander. She formed the set-
tlement out of four cities, Sesamus, Cytorum, Cromna, (men-
tioned by Homer in his recital of the Paphlagonian forces/)
and Tieium, which city however soon separated from the
others, but the rest continued united. Of these, Sesamus is
called the citadel of Amastris. Cytorum was formerly a mart
of the people of Sinope. It had its name from Cytorus, the
son of Phrixus, according to Ephorus. Box-wood of the best
quality grows in great abundance in the territory of Amastris,
and particularly about Cytorum.

^gialus is a line of sea-coast, in length more than 100 stadia.
On it is a village of the same name,^ which the poet mentions
in these lines,

" Cromna, and ^gialus, and the lofty Erythini ;"^

but some authors write,

" Cromna and Cobialus."

The Erythini are said to be the present Erythrini, and to have
their name from their (red) colour. They are two rocks.*

Next to ^gialus is Carambis, a large promontory stretching
towards the north, and the Scythian Chersonesus. We have
frequently mentioned this promontory, and the Criu-metopon
opposite it, which divides the Euxine into two seas.^

Next to Carambis is Cinolis,^ and Anti-Cinolis, and Aboni-
teichos,' a small city, and Armene,^ which gave rise to the
common proverb ;

" He who had nothing to do built a wall about Armene."
It is a village of the Sinopenses, with a harbour.

11. Next is Sinope itself, distant from Armene 50 stadia,
the most considerable of all the cities in that quarter. It was
founded by Milesians, and when the inhabitants had estab-
lished a naval force they commanded the sea within the Cya-

' II. u. 853. ' Kara-Aghatsch. » II. i. 855.

* Between C. Tchakras and Delike-Tschili.

' B. vii. c. iv. § 3. « Kinoli.

' Ineboli, near the mouth of the Daurikan-Irmak.

* Ak-Liman.

u 2

292 STRABO. Casaub. 54o.

nean rocks, and were allies of the Greeks in many naval battles
beyond these limits. Although this city was independent for
a long period, it did not preserve its liberty to the last^ but
was taken by siege, and became subject first to Pharnaces,
then to his successors, to the time when the Romans put an
end to the power of Mithridates Eupator. This prince was
born and brought up in this city, on which he conferred dis-
tinguished honour, and made it a capital of the kingdom. It
has received advantages from nature which have been im-
proved by art. It is built upon the neck of a peninsula ; on
each side of the isthmus are harbours, stations for vessels, and
fisheries worthy of admiration for the capture of the pela-
mydes. Of these fisheries we have said^ that the people of
Sinope have the second, and the Byzantines the third, in
point of excellence.

The peninsula projects in a circular form ; the shores are
surrounded by a chain of rocks, and in some parts there are
cavities, like rocky pits, which are called Choenicides. These
are filled when the sea is high. For the above reason, the
place is not easily approached ; besides which, along the whole
surface of rock the road is covered with sharp-pointed stones,
and persons cannot walk upon it with naked feet. The lands
in the higher parts and above the city have a good soil, and
are adorned with fields dressed as gardens, and this is the case
in a still greater degree in the suburbs. The city itself is
well secured with walls, and magnificently ornamented with
a gymnasium, forum, and porticos. Notwithstanding these
advantages for defence, it was twice taken ; first by Phar-
naces, who attacked it unexpectedly ; afterwards by Lucullus,
who besieged it while it was harassed by an insidious tyrant
within the walls. For Bacchides,^ who was appointed by the
king commander of the garrison, being always suspicious of
treachery on the part of those within the city, had disgraced
and put many to death. He thus prevented the citizens both
from defending themselves with bravery, although capable of
making a gallant defence, and from offering terms for a capitul-
ation. The city was therefore captured. Lucullus took away

* B. vii. c. vi. § 2,

2 The eunuch Bacchides, or Bacchus, according to others, whom Mi-
thridates, after despairing of success, commissioned with the order for his
women to die. Plutarch, Life of Lticulhcs.

B. XII. c. III. § 12. PONTUS. SINOPE. 293

the Sphere of Billarus,^ and the Autolycus,^ the workmanship
of Sthenis, whom the citizens regarded as a founder, and
honoured as a god ; he left the other ornaments of the city-
untouched. There was there an oracle of Sthenis. He seems
to have been one of the companions of Jason in his voyage,
and to have got possession of this place. In after times the
Milesians, observing the natural advantages of the city, and the
weakness of the inhabitants, appropriated it as their own, and
sent out colonists. It has at present a Roman colony, and a part
of the city and of the territory belongs to the Romans. It is
distant from Hieron^ 3500, from Heracleia 2000, and from
Carambis 700, stadia. It has produced men distinguished
among philosophers, Diogenes the Cynic, and Timotheus sur-
named Patrion ; among poets, Diphilus, the writer of comedy ;
among historians. Baton,'* who wrote the history of Persia.

12. Proceeding thence, next in order is the mouth of the
river Halys. It has its name from the hales, or salt mines,^
near which it flows. It has its source in the Greater Cap-
padocia, near the territory of Pontus, in Camisene. It flows
in a large stream towards the west, then turning to the north
through the country of the Galatians and Paphlagonians, forms
the boundary of their territory, and of that of the Leuco- Syrians.
The tract of land belonging to Sinope and all the mountainous
country as far as Bithynia, situated above the sea-coast, which
has been described, furnishes timber of excellent quality for
ship-building, and is easily conveyed away. The territory of

' Probably a celestial globe constructed by Billarus, or on the prin-
ciples of Billarus, a person otherwise unknown. Strabo mentions, b. ii.
c. V. § 10, the Sphere of Crates, Cicero the Sphere of Archimedes and of
Posidonius. History speaks of several of these spheres, among others
of that of Ptolemy and Aratus. Leontinus, a mechanician of the sixth
century, explains the manner in which this last was constructed.

'^ Lucullus, upon his entry into Sinope, put to death 8000 Cilicians
whom he found there. The rest of the inhabitants, after having set fire
to the town, carried with them the statue of Autolycus, the founder of
Sinope, the work of Sthenis ; but not having time to put it on board ship,
it was left on the sea-shore. Autolycus was one of the companions of
Hercules in his expedition against the Amazons. Sthenis, as well as his
brother Lysistratus, was a celebrated statuary; he was a native of Olyn-
thus and a contemporary of Alexander the Great.

' The temple of Jupiter Urius near Chalcedon.

* He was also the author of a History of the Tyrants of Ephesus.
Athenceus, b. vi. c. 59, p. 395, Bohn's Class. Library.

* airb tGjv aXCjv.

294 STRABO. Casaub. 546.

Sinope produces the maple, and the mountain nut tree, from
which wood for tables is cut. The whole country is plant-
ed with the olive, and cultivation begins a little above the sea-
coast.

13. Next to the mouth of the Halys is Gadilonitis, extending
as far as the Saramene ; it is a fertile country, wholly con-
sisting of plains, and produces every kind of fruit. It affords
also pasture for flocks of sheep which are covered ^ with skins,
and produce a soft wool ; very little of this wool is to be found
throughout Cappadocia and Pontus. There are also deer,^
which are rare in other parts.

The Amiseni possess one part of this country. Pompey
gave another to Deiotarus, as well as the tract about Phar-
nacia and Trapezus as far as Colchis and the Lesser Armenia.
Pompey appointed him king of these people and countries : he
had already inherited the tetrarchy of the Galatians, called the
Tolistobogii. Upon his death various persons succeeded to
the different parts of his kingdom.

14. Next to Gadilon^are the Saramene,'* and Amisus, a
considerable city distant from Sinope about 900 stadia. Theo-
pompus says that the Milesians were the first founders, *

***** 5 [then by] a chief of the

Cappadocians ; . in the third place it received a colony of
Athenians under the conduct of Athenocles, and its name was
changed to Piraseus.

This city also was in the possession of the kings. Mithri-
dates Eupator embellished it with temples, and added a part
to it. Lucullus, and afterwards Pharnaces, who came from
across the Bosporus, besieged it. Antony surrendered it to
the kings of Pontus, after it had been declared free by Divus
Caesar. Then the Tyrant Strato oppressed the inhabitants,
who again recovered their liberty under Caesar Augustus after
the battle of Actium. They are now in a prosperous condi-
tion. Among other fertile spots is Themiscyra,^ the abode of
the Amazons, and Sidene."^

* B. iv. c. iv. § 3. ' ZopKBQ. 3 Wesir Kopti.

* The district between the Halys (Kizil Irmak) and the Iris (Jeschil
Irmak).

' Some words of the text are lost.

® The tract of country between the Iris and the Therm odon.

' The territory on the east of the Thermodon (Termeh).

B. XII. c. III. § 15, 16. PONTUS. 295

15. Themiscyra is a plain, partly washed by the sea, and
distant about 60 stadia from the city (Amisus) ; and partly
situated at the foot of a mountainous country, which is well
wooded, and intersected with rivers, which have their source
among the mountains. A river, named Thermodon, which
receives the water of all these rivers, traverses the plain.

Another river very similar to this, of the name of Iris,^
flowing from a place called Phanaroea,^ traverses the same plain.
It has its sources in Pontus. Flowing westward through the
city of Pontic Comana,^ and through Dazimonitis,* a fertile
plain, it then turns to the north beside Gaziura,'^ an ancient
seat of the kings, but now deserted ; it then again returns to
the east, where, uniting with the Scylax^ and other rivers,
and taking its course beside the walls of my native place,
Amaseia,' a very strongly fortified city, proceeds to Phanaroea.
There when joined by the Lycus,^ which rises in Armenia, it
becomes the Iris. It then enters Themiscyra, and dis-
charges itself into the Euxine. This plain, therefore, is well
watered with dews, is constantly covered with herbage, and
is capable of affording food to herds of cattle as well as to
horses. The largest crops there consist of panic and millet,
or rather they never fail, for the supply of water more than
counteracts the effect of all drought ; these people, therefore,
never on any occasion experience a famine. The country at
the foot of the mountains produces so large an autumnal crop
of spontaneous-grown wild fruits, of the vine, the pear, the
apple, and hazel, that, in all seasons of the year, persons who
go into the woods to cut timber gather them in large quan-
tities ; the fruit is found either yet hanging upon the trees or
lyjng beneath a deep covering of fallen leaves thickly strewed
upon the ground. Wild animals of all kinds, which resort
here on account of the abundance of food, are frequently
hunted.

16. Next to Themiscyra is Sidene, a fertile plain, but not
watered in the same manner by rivers as Themiscyra. It has
strongholds on the sea-coast, as Side,^ from which Sidene has

* Jeschil Irmak. ^ Tasch Owa. •'' Gumenek. * Kas Owa.
' Turchal. ' Tschoterlek Irmak. ' Amasija.

^ Germeili Tschai.

* At the mouth of the river Puleman.

296 STRABO.

Casaub. 548.

its name, Chabaca and Phabda (Phauda).i Amisene extends
as far as this place.

Among the natives of Amisus^ distinguished for their learn-
ing were the mathematicians Demetrius, the son of Rathenus,
and Dionysodorus, of the same name as the Ionian (Milesian ?)
geometrician, and Tyrannion the grammarian, whose lessons
I attended.

17. Next to Sidene is Pharnacia^ a small fortified city, and
then follows Trapezus,'* a Greek city, to which from Amisus
is a voyage of about 2200 stadia; thence to the Phasis
about 1400 stadia, so that the sum total of stadia from the
Hieron^ to the Phasis is about 8000 stadia, either more or less.

In sailing along this coast from Amisus we first come to
the Heracleian promontory ;^ then succeeds another promon-
tory, Jasonium,'^ and the Genetes ;® then Cytorus (Cotyorus) a
small city,^ from which Pharnacia received a colony ; then
Ischopolis, which is in ruins. Next is a bay on which are
situated Cerasus, and Hermonassa,^^ small settlements. Near
Hermonassa is Trapezus, then Colchis. Somewhere about
this place is a settlement called Zygopolis.

I have already spoken of Colchis, and of the sea-coast be-
yond. ^^

18. Above Trapezus and Pharnacia are situated Tibareni,
Chald£ei, Sanni, (who were formerly called Macrones,i'^) and
the Lesser Armenia. The Appaitae also, formerly called
Cercitae, are not far from these places. Through the country be-
longing to these people stretches the Scydises,^^ a very rugged
mountain, contiguous to the Moschic mountains^'* above Colchis.
The heights of the Scy discs are occupied by the Heptacometas.^'''
This country is likewise traversed by the Paryadres,^^ which
extends from the neighbourhood of Sidene and Themiscyra to
the Lesser Armenia, and forms the eastern side of the Pontus.

* Fatsa ? 2 Samsun.

* According to Arrian, Pharnacia in his time was the name of Cerasns
(Kerasun).

* Trebisond. * The temple of Jupiter near Chalcedon.

^ To the west of the mouth of the Termeh. ^ Jasun. ^ C Vona.

9 Ordu. 10 Platana. " B. xi. c. ii. § 12.

'- Probably the same as the Macropogones and Macrocephali.

'^ Aggi-dagh. " The mountains above Erzeroum.

'* The inhabitants of the Seven Villages. *« lildiz-dagh.

B. XII. c. III. § 19, 20. PONTUS. 297

All the inhabitants of these mountains are quite savage,
but the Heptacometae are more so than all the others. Some
of them live among trees, or in small towers, whence the
ancients called them Mosynceci,^ because the towers were
called mosynes. Their food consists of the flesh of wild ani-
mals and the fruits of trees. They attack travellers, leaping
down from the floors of their dwellings among the trees. The
Heptacoraetas cut off three of Pompey's cohorts, as they were
passing through the mountains, by placing on their road
vessels filled with maddening honey, which is procured from
the branches of trees. The men who had tasted the honey
and lost their senses were attacked and easily despatched.
Some of these barbarians were called Byzeres.

19. The present Chaldaei were anciently called Chalybes.
It is in their territory chiefly that Pharnacia is situated. On
the sea-coast it has natural advantages for the capture of the
pelamydes. For this fish is first caught at this place. On
the mainland there are at present mines of iron ; formerly
there were also mines of silver. The sea-shore along all these
places is very narrow, for directly above it are hills, which
abound with mines and forests ; much, however, of the country
is not cultivated. The miners derive their subsistence from
the mines, and the fishermen from the fisheries, especially
from the capture of pelamydes and dolphins. The dolphins
pursue shoals of fish, the cordyla, the tunny, and even the
pelamys ; they grow fat on them, and as they approach the
land incautiously, are easily taken. They are caught with a
bait and then cut into pieces ; large quantities of the fat are
used for all purposes.

20. These I suppose are the people who are called by
Homer Halizoni, who in his Catalogue follow the Paphlago-
nians.

"But Odius and Epistrophus led the Halizoni
Far from Alybe, where there are silver mines ; "'

whether the writing was changed from " far from Chalybe,"
or whether the people were formerly called Alybes instead of
Chalybes. We cannot at present say that it is possible that
Chaldaei should be read for Chalybes, but it cannot be maintain-
ed that formerly Chalybes could not be read for Alybes, espe-

' Dwellers in towers. * II. ii. 856.

298 STRABO. Casaub. 549.

cially when we know that names are subject to many changes,
more especially among barbarians. For example, a tribe of
Thracians were called Sinties, then Sinti, then Saii, in whose
country Archilochus is said to have thrown away his shield :

" one of the Saii exults in having a shield, which, without blame, I invo-
luntarily left behind in a thicket."

This same people have now the name of Sapaei. For all
these people were settled about Abdera, they also held Lem-
nos and the islands about Lemnos. Thus also Brygi, Briges,
and Phryges are the same people; and Mysi, Maeones, and
Meones are the same people. But it is unnecessary to multi-
ply instances of this kind.

The Seepsian (Demetrius) throws some doubt on the alter-
ation of the name from Alybes to Chalybes, but not under-
standing what follows, nor what accords with it, nor, in par-
ticular, why the poet calls the Chalybes Alizoni, he rejects
the opinion that there has been an alteration of name. In
comparing his opinion with my own I shall consider also the
hypotheses entertained by others.

21. Some persons alter the word to Alazones, others to
Amazons, and " Alybe " to " Alope," or " Alobe," calling
the Scythians above the Borysthenes Alazones and Callipida3,
and by other names, about which Hellanicus, Herodotus, and
Eudoxus have talked very absurdly ; some say that the Ama-
zons were situated between Mysia, Caria, and Lydia near
Cyme, which is the opinion also of Ephorus, who was a native
of the latter place. And this opinion may not be unreason-
able, for he may mean the country which in later times was
inhabited by the JEolians and lonians, but formerly by Ama-
zons. There are some cities, it is said, which have their
names from the Amazons ; as Ephesus, Smyrna, Cyme, and
Myrina. But would any one think of inquiring in these
places after Alybe, or, according to some writers, Alope, or
Alobe ; what would be the meaning of " from afar," or where
is the silver mine ?

22. These objections he solves by an alteration in the text,
for he writes the verses in this manner,

" But Odius and Epistrophus led the Amazons,

Who came from Alope, whence the tribe of the Amazonides."

But by this solution he has invented another fiction. For

B. XII. c. III. § 22. PONTUS. 299

Alope is nowhere to be found in that situation, and the alter-
ation in the text, itself a great change, and contrary to the
authority of ancient copies, looks like an adaptation formed
for the occasion.

The Scepsian (Demetrius) does not adopt the opinion of
Ephorus, nor does he agree with those who suppose them to
be the Halizoni about Pallene, whom we mentioned in the de-
scription of Macedonia. He is at a loss also to understand
how any one could suppose that auxiliaries could come to the
Trojans from the Nomades situated above the Borysthenes.
He much approves of the opinion of Hecataeus the Milesian,
and of Menecrates of Elea, disciples of Xenocrates, and that
of Palnephatus. The first of these says in his work entitled
'• the Circuit of the Earth," " near the city Alazia is the river
Odrysses, which after flowing through the plain of Mygdonia
from the west, out of the lake Dascylitis, empties itself into
the Rhyndacus." He further relates that Alazia is now de-
serted, but that many villages of the Alazones through which
the Odrysses flows are inhabited. In these villages Apollo
is worsihpped with peculiar honours, and especially on the
confines of the Cyziceni.

Menecrates, in his work " the Circuit of the Hellespont,"
says that above the places near Myrleia there is a continuous
mountain tract occupied by the nation of the Halizoni. The
name, he says, ought to be written with two I's, Hallizoni,
but the poet uses one only on account of the metre.

Palsephatus says that Odius and Epistrophus levied their
army from among the Amazons then living in Alope, but at
present in Zeleia.^

Do the opinions of these persons deserve approbation ? For
besides their alteration of the ancient text, and the position of
this people, they neither point out the silver mines, nor where
in Myrleatis Alope is situated, nor how they, who came
thence to Troy, came "from afar," although it should be
granted that there existed an Alope, or an Alazia. For these
are much nearer Troy than the places about Ephesus. Those,
however, are triflers, in the opinion of Demetrius, who speak of
the existence of Amazons near Pygela, between Ephesus,
Magnesia, and Priene, for the words "from afar" do not
agree with the spot ; much less will they agree with a situa-
tion about Mysia, and Tenth rania.
* Sarakoi.

300 STRABO. Casaub. 551.

23. This may be true, says he, but some expressions are to
be understood as loosely applied, such as these,

" Far from Ascania," ^
and

" His name was Arnaeus, given to him by his honoured mother," '
and

" Penelope seized the well-turned key with her firm hand."'

But admitting this, the other assertions are not to be allowed
to which Demetrius is disposed to attend ; nor has he refuted
in a convincing manner those persons who maintain that we
ought to read " far from Chalybe." For having conceded
that, although at present there are not silver mines among the
Chalybes, they might formerly have existed, he does not
grant that they were far-famed, and worthy of notice, like
the iron mines. But some one may say, what should prevent
them from being as famous as the iron mines, or does an
abundance of iron make a place celebrated, and not an abund-
ance of silver? Again, if the silver mines had obtained
celebrity in the age of Homer, but not in the heroic times, can
any one blame the poet's representation ? How did their fame
reach him ? How did the fame of the copper mines at Temesa
in Italy, or of the wealth of Thebes in Egypt, reach his ears,
although Egyptian Thebes was situated almost at double the
distance of the Chaldsei.

But Demetrius does not altogether agree with those whose
opinions he espouses. For when he is describing the neigh-
bourhood of Scepsis his own birth-place, he mentions Enea, a
village, Argyria, and Alazonia, as near Scepsis, and the ^sepus ;*
but if these places exist at all, they must be near the sources of
the ^sepus. Hecateeus places them beyond the mouths of that
river. Palsephatus, who says that the Amazons formerly oc-
cupied Alope, and at present Zeleia, does not advance any-
thing in agreement with these statements. But if Menecrates
agrees with Demetrius, neither does Menecrates say what this
Alope, or Alobe, is, (or, in whatever manner they please to
write the name,) nor yet does Demetrius himself.

24. With regard to Apollodorus, who mentions these places
in his discourse on the array of the Trojan forces, we have

' II. ii. 863. '^ Od. xviii. 5. 3 Od. xxi. 6.

* In Kiepert's map it is without a name. Leake calls it Boklu. It
falls into the sea to the west of Cyzicus.

B. xir. c. III. § 25. PONTUS. 301

said much before in reply to him, and we must now speak of
him again. ^ He is of opinion that we ought not to understand
the Halizoni without the Halys, for no auxiliaries came to
Troy from the country on the other side of the Halys.
First, then, we will inquire of him who are the Halizoni
within the Halys, and situated

" far from Alybe, where are silver mines ? "

He will not he able to reply. Next we will ask the reason
why he does not admit that some auxiliaries came from the
country on the other side of the Halys. For if it was the
case, that all the rest were living on this side the Halys, ex-
cept the Thracians, nothing prevented this one body of allies
from coming from afar, from the country beyond the Leuco-
Syrians ? Or, was it possible for the persons immediately
engaged in the war to pass over from those places, and from
the country beyond them, as the Amazons, Treres, and Cim-
merians, but impossible for allies to do so ?

The Amazons were not allies, because Priam had fought in
alliance with the Phrygians against them :

" at that time, says Priam, I was among their auxiliaries on that day,
when the Amazons came to attack them."^

The people also who were living on the borders of the
country of the Amazons were not situated at so great a dis-
tance that it was difficult to send for them from thence, nor
did any animosity exist, I suppose, at that time to prevent
them from affording assistance.

25. Nor is there any foundation for the opinion, that all the
ancients agree that no people from the country beyond the
Halys took part in the Trojan war. Testimony may be
found to the contrary. Maeandrius at least says that Heneti
came from the country of the Leuco-Syrians to assist the Tro-
jans in the war ; that they set sail thence with the Thracians,
and settled about the recess of the Adriatic ; and that the
Heneti, who had no place in the expedition, were Cappadocians.
This account seems to agree with the circumstance, that the
people inhabiting the whole of that part of Cappadocia near the
Halys, which extends along Paphlagonia, speak two dialects,
and that their language abounds with Paphlagonian names, as

» B. vii. c. iii. § 6. B. i. c. ii. § 23. = II. iu. 189.

302 STRABO. Casaub. 553.

Bagas, Biasas, JEniates, Rhatotes, Zardoces, Tibius, Gasys,
Oligasys, and Maries. For these names are frequently to be
found in the Bamonitis, the Pimolitis, the Gazaluitis, and
Gazacene, and in most of the other districts. Apollodorus
himself quotes the words of Homer, altered by Zenodotus ;

" from Henete, whence comes a race of wild mules,"
and says, that Hecatasus the Milesian understands Henete to
mean Amisus. But we have shown that Amisus belongs to
the Leuco- Syrians, and is situated beyond the Halys.

26. He also somewhere says that the poet obtained his
knowledge of the Paphlagonians, situated in the interior, from
persons who had travelled through the country on foot, but
that he was not acquainted with the sea-coast any more than
with the rest of the territory of Pontus; for otherwise he
would have mentioned it by name. We may, on the con-
trary, after the description which has just been given of the
country, retort and say that he has traversed the whole of the
sea-coast, and has omitted nothing worthy of record which
existed at that time. It is not surprising that he does not
mention Heracleia, Amastris, or Sinope, for they were not
founded ; nor is it strange that he should omit to speak of
the interior of the country; nor is it a proof of ignorance
not to specify by name many places which were well known,
as we have shown in a preceding part of this work.

He says that Homer was ignorant of much that was re-
markable in Pontus, as rivers and nations, otherwise he would
have mentioned their names. This may be admitted with
respect to some very remarkable nations and rivers, as the
Scythians, the Palus Mseotis, and the Danube. For he would
not have described the Nomades, by characteristic signs, as
living on milk, Abii, a people without certain means of sub-
sistence, "most just" and "renowned Hippemolgi," (milkers
of mares,) and not distinguished them as Scythians, or Sauro-
matse, or Sarmatas, if, indeed, they had these names among
the Greeks (at that time). Nor in mentioning the Thracians
and Mysians, who live near the Danube, would he have
passed over in silence the Danube itself, one of the largest
rivers, particularly as, in other instances, he is inclined to
mark the boundaries of places by rivers ; nor in speaking of
the Cimmerians would he have omitted the Bosporus, or the
Maiotis.

B. XII. c. III. § 27. PONTUS. 303

27. With respect then to places not so remarkable, or not
famous at that time, or not illustrating the subject of his poem,
who can blame the poet for omitting them ? As, for example,
omitting to mention the Don, famed only as it is for being the
boundary of Asia and Europe. The persons however of that
time were not accustomed to use the name either of Asia or
Europe, nor was the habitable earth divided into three conti-
nents ; otherwise he would have mentioned them by name on
account of their strong characteristic marks, as he mentioned
by name Libya (Africa), and the Libs (the south-west wind),
blowing from the western parts of Africa. But as the conti-
nents were not yet distinguished, it was not necessary that he
should mention the Don. There were many things worthy of
record, which did not occur to him. For both in actions and
in discourse much is done and said without any cause or motive,
by merely spontaneously presenting itself to the mind.

It is evident from all these circumstances that every person
who concludes that because a certain thing is not mentioned
by the poet he was therefore ignorant of it, uses a bad argu-
ment ; and we must prove by several examples that it is bad,
for many persons employ this kind of evidence to a great
extent. We must refute them therefore by producing such
instances as these which follow, although we shall repeat what
has been already said.

If any one should maintain that the poet was not acquainted
with a river which he has not mentioned, we should say that
his argument is absurd, for he has not mentioned by name even
the river Meles, which runs by Smyrna, his birth-place ac-
cording to many writers, while he has mentioned the rivers
Hermusand Hyllus byname, but yet not the Pactolus,^ which
discharges itself into the same channel as these rivers, and
rises in the mountain Tmolus.^ He does not mention either
Smyrna itself, or the other cities of the lonians, or most of those
of the ^olians, although he specifies Miletus, Samos, Lesbos,
and Tenedos. He does not mention the Lethaeus, which flows
beside Magnesia,^ nor the Marsyas, which rivers empty them-
selves into the Maeander,'* which he mentions by name, as well as

* B. xiii. c. iv. § 5, it joins the Hyllus, called Phrygius in the time of
Strabo. The Phrygius takes its rise in the mountains north of Thyatira,
(Ak Hissar,) and falls into the Hermus (Gedis Tschai).

* Bos Dagh. ^ Manisa. ■• Bojuk Meinder.

304 STRABO. Casaub. 554.

" the Rhesus, Heptapoius, Caresus, and Rhodius,"^
and others, many of which are not more than small streams.
While he specifies by name many countries and cities, some-
times he makes an enumeration of rivers and mountains,
sometimes he does not do so. He does not mention the rivers
in JEtolia and Attica, nor many others. And if, in mentioning
people that live afar off, he does not mention those who are
very near, it is certainly not through ignorance of them, for
they were well known to other writers. With respect to peo-
ple who were all equally near, he does not observe one rule,
for some he mentions, and not others, as for instance he mentions
the Lycii, and Solymi, but not the Milyae, nor Pamphylians,
nor Pisidians ; the Paphlagonians, Phrygians, and Mysians,
but not the Mariandyni, nor Thyni, nor Bithynians, nor Be-
bryces ; the Amazons, but not the Leuco- Syrians, nor Syrians,
nor Cappadocians, nor Lycaonians, while he frequently speaks
of the Phcenicians, -Egyptians, and Ethiopians. He men-
tions the Aleian plain, and the Arimi mountains, but not the
nation among which these are situated.

The argument drawn from this is false ; the true argument
would have been to show that the poet has asserted what is
not true. Apollodorus has not succeeded in this attempt, and
he has more particularly failed when he ventures to call by the
name of fiction " the renowned Hippemolgi and Galactophagi."
So much then in reply to Apollodorus. I now return to the
part of my description which follows next in order.

28. Above the places about Pharnacia and Trapezus are
the Tibareni, and Chaldgei, extending as far as the Lesser
Armenia.

The Lesser Armenia is sufficiently fertile. Like Sophene
it was always governed by princes who were sometimes in
alliance with the other Armenians, and sometimes acting inde-
pendently. They held in subjection the Chaldaei and Tibareni.
Their dominion extended as far as Trapezus and Pharnacia.
When Mithri dates Eupator became powerful, he made himself
master of Colchis, and of all those places which were ceded to
him by Antipater the son of Sisis. He bestowed however so
much care upon them, that he built seventy-five strongholds,
in which he deposited the greatest part of his treasure. The
most considerable of these were Hydara, Basgoedariza, and
» II. xii. 20. ^ B. vii. c. iii. § 6.

B. XII. c. III. § 29, 30. PONTUS. 305

Sinoria, a fortress situated on the borders of the Greater Ar-
menia, whence Theophanes parodied the name, and called it
Sjnoria.

All the mountainous range of the Paryadres has many such
convenient situations for fortresses, being well supplied with
water and timber, it is intersected in many places by abrupt
ravines and precipices. Here he built most of the strongholds
for keeping his treasure. At last on the invasion of the
country by Pompey he took refuge in these extreme parts of
the kingdom of Pontus, and occupied a mountain near Das-
teira in Acilisene, which was well supplied with water. The
Euphrates also was near, which is the boundary between Acili-
sene and the Lesser Armenia. Mithridates remained there
till he was besieged and compelled to fly across the mountains
into Colchis, and thence to Bosporus. Pompey built near this
same place in the Lesser Armenia Nicopolis, a city which yet-
subsists, and is well inhabited.

29. The Lesser Armenia, which was in the possession of
different persons at different times, according to the pleasure
of the Romans, was at last subject to Archelaus. The Tiba-
reni, however, and Chaldsei, extending as far as Colchis, Phar-
nacia, and Trapezus, are under the government of Pythodoris,
a prudent woman, and capable of presiding over the manage-
ment of public affairs. She is the daughter of Pythodorus of
Tralles. She was the wife of Polemo, and reigned con-
jointly with him for some time. She succeeded, after his
death, to the throne. He died in the country of the Aspur-
giani, a tribe of barbarians living about Sindica. She had
two sons by Polemo, and a daughter who was married to
Cotys the Sapsean. He was treacherously murdered, and she
became a widow. She had children by him, the eldest of whom
is now king. Of the sons of Pythodoris, one as a private
person, administers, together with his mother, the affairs of
the kingdom, the other has been lately made king of the
Greater Armenia. Pythodoris however married Archelaus,
and remained with him till his death. At present she is a
widow, and in possession of the countries before mentioned,
and of others still more beautiful, of which we shall next speak.

30. Sidene, and Themiscyra are contiguous to Pharnacia.
Above these countries is situated Phanaroea, containing the
best portion of the Pontus, for it produces excellent oil and

306 STRABO. Casaub. 556.

wine, and possesses every other property of a good soil. On
the eastern side it lies in front of the Paryadres which
runs parallel to it ; on the western side it has the Lithrus,
and the Ophlimus. It forms a valley of considerable length
and breadth. The Lycus, coming out of Armenia, flows
through this valley, and the Iris, which issues from the passes
near Amaseia. Both these rivers unite about the middle
of the valley. A city stands at their confluence which the
first founder called Eupatoria, after his own name. Pompey
found it half-finished, and added to it a territory, furnished
it with inhabitants, and called it Magnopolis. It lies in the
middle of the plain. Close to the foot of the Paryadres is
situated Cabeira, about 150 stadia further to the south than
Magnopolis, about which distance likewise, but towards the
west, is Amaseia. At Cabeira was the palace of Mithridates,
the water-mill, the park for keeping wild animals, the hunting-
ground in the neighbourhood, and the mines.

31. There also is the Cainochorion, (New Castle,) as it is
called, a fortified and precipitous rock, distant from Cabeira
less than 200 stadia. On its summit is a spring, which throws
up abundance of water, and at its foot a river, and a deep ravine.
The ridge of rocks on which it stands is of very great height,
so that it cannot be taken by siege. It is enclosed with an ex-
cellent wall, except the part where it has been demolished by
the Romans. The whole country around is so covered with
wood, so mountainous, and destitute of water, that an enemy
cannot encamp within the distance of 120 stadia. There
Mithridates had deposited his most valuable effects, which are
now in the Capitol, as offerings dedicated by Pompey.

Pythodoris is in possession of all this country ; (for it is con-
tiguous to that of the barbarians, which she holds as a con-
quered country ;) shealso holds the Zelitis and the Megalopolitis.
After Pompey had raised Cabeira to the rank of a city, and
called it Diospolis, Pythodoris improved it still more, changed
its name to Sebaste, (or Augusta,) and considers it a royal city.

She has also the temple of Men surnamed of Pharnaces, at
Araeria, a village city, inhabited by a large body of sacred
menials, and having annexed to it a sacred territory, the pro-
duce of which is always enjoyed by the priest. The kings
held this temple in such exceeding veneration, that this was
the Royal oath, " by the fortune of the king, and by Men of

B. xii. c. III. § 32, 33. PONTUS. 307

Pharnaces." This is also the temple of the moon, like that
among the Albani, and those in Phrygia, namely the temple of
Men in a place of the same name, the temple of Ascaeus at
Antioch in Pisidia, and another in the territory of Antioch.

32. Above Phanaroea is Comana^ in Pontus, of the same
name as that in the Greater Cappadocia, and dedicated to the
same goddess. The temple is a copy of that in Cappadocia,
and nearly the same course of religious rites is practised there ;
the mode of delivering the oracles is the same ; the same respect
is paid to the priests, as was more particularly the case in the
time of the first kings, when twice a year, at what is called the
Exodi of the goddess, (when her image is carried in procession,)
the priest wore the diadem of the goddess and received the
chief honours after the king.

33. We have formerly mentioned Dorylaus the Tactician,
who was my mother's great grandfather ; and another Dorylaus,
who was the nephew of the former, and the son of Philetserus ;
I said that, although he had obtained from Mithridates the
highest dignities and even the priesthood of Comana, he was
detected in the fact of attempting the revolt of the kingdom
to the Romans. Upon his fall the family also was disgraced.
At a later period however Moaphernes, my mother's uncle, rose
to distinction near upon the dissolution of the kingdom. But a
second time he and his friends shared in the misfortunes of
the king, except those persons who had anticipated the ca-
lamity and deserted him early. This was the case with my
maternal grandfather, who, perceiving the unfortunate progress
of the affairs of the king in the war with Lucullus, and at the
same time being alienated from him by resentment for having
lately put to death his nephew Tibius, and his son Theophilus,
undertook to avenge their wrongs and his own. He obtained
pledges of security from Lucullus, and caused fifteen fortresses
to revolt ; in return he received magnificent promises. On
the arrival of Pompey, who succeeded Lucullus in the conduct
of the war, he regarded as enemies (in consequence of the
enmity which subsisted between himself and that general) all
those persons who had performed any services that were ac-
ceptable to Lucullus. On his return home at the conclusion
of the war he prevailed upon the senate not to confirm those
honours which Lucullus had promised to some persons of

' Gumeiiek.
X 2

308 STRABO. Casaub. 558.

Pontus, maintaining it to be unjust towards a general who had
brought the war to a successful issue, that the rewards and dis-
tribution of honours should be placed in the hands of another.

34. The affairs of Comana were administered as has been
described in the time of the kings. Pompey, when he had ob-
tained the power, appointed Archelaus priest, and assigned to
him a district of two schoeni, or 60 stadia in circuit, in addi-
tion to the sacred territory, and gave orders to the inhabitants
to obey Archelaus. He was their governor, and master of the
sacred slaves who inhabited the city, but had not the power of
selling them. The slaves amounted to no less than six thou-
sand.

This Archelaus was the son of that Archelaus who received
honours from Sylla and the senate ; he was the friend of
Gabinius, a person of consular rank. When the former was
sent into Syria, he came with the expectation of accompanying
him, when he was making preparations for the Parthian war,
but the senate would not permit him to do so, and he abandoned
this, and conceived a greater design.

Ptolemy, the father of Cleopatra, happened at this time to be
ejected from his kingdom by the Egyptians. His daughter
however, the elder sister of Cleopatra, was in possession of the
throne. When inquiries were making in order to marry her to
a husband of royal descent, Archelaus presented himself to
those who were negotiating the affair, and pretended to be
the son of Mithridates Eupator. He was accepted, but reigned
only six months. He was killed by Gabinius in a pitched
battle, in his attempt to restore Ptolemy.

35. His son however succeeded to the priesthood, and Ly-
comedes succeeded him, to whom was assigned an additional
district of four schoeni (or 120 stadia) in extent. When Ly-
comedes was dispossessed he was succeeded by Dyteutus, the
son of Adiatorix, who still occupies the post, and appears to
have obtained this honour from Csesar Augustus on account of
his good conduct on the following occasion.

Caesar, after leading in triumph Adiatorix, with his wife and
children, had resolved to put him to death together with the
eldest of his sons. Dyteutus was the eldest ; but when the
second of his brothers told the soldiers who were leading them
away to execution that he was the eldest, there was a contest
between the two brothers, which continued for some time, tiU

B. xii. c. ni. § 36, 37, PONTUS. 309

the parents prevailed upon Dyteutus to yield to the younger,
assigning as a reason, that the eldest would be a better person
to protect his mother and his remaining brother. The younger
was put to death together with his father ; the elder was saved,
and obtained this office. When Caesar was informed of the
execution of these persons, he regretted it, and, considering
the survivors worthy of his favour and protection, bestowed
upon them this honourable appointment.

36. Comana is populous, and is a considerable mart, fre-
quented by persons coming from Armenia. Men and women
assemble there from all quarters from the cities and the country
to celebrate the festival at the time of the exodi or processions
of the goddess. Some persons under the obligation of a vow
are always residing there, and perform sacrifices in honour
of the goddess.

The inhabitants are voluptuous in their mode of life. All
their property is planted with vines, and there is a multitude
of women, who make a gain of their persons, most of whom
are dedicated to the goddess. The city is almost a little
Corinth. On account of the multitude of harlots at Corinth,
who are dedicated to Venus, and attracted by the festivities of
the place, strangers resorted thither in great numbers. Mer-
chants and soldiers were quite ruined, so that hence the pro-
verb originated,

" every man cannot go to Corinth."
Such is the character of Comana.

37. All the country around is subject to Pythodoris, and
she possesses also Phanaroea, the Zelitis, and the Megalopolitis.

We have already spoken of Phanaroea.

In the district Zelitis is the city Zela,^ built upon the mound
of Semiramis. It contains the temple of Anaitis, whom the
Armenians also worship. Sacrifices are performed with more
pomp than in other places, and all the people of Pontus take
oaths here in affairs of highest concern. The multitude
of the sacred menials, and the honours conferred upon the
priests, were in the time of the kings, upon the plan which I
have before described. At present, however, everything is
under the power of Pythodoris, but many persons had previ-
ously reduced the number of the sacred attendants, injured
the property and diminished the revenue belonging to the
' Zileh.

310 STRABO. Casaub. 660.

temple. The adjacent district of Zelitis, (in which is the
city Zela, on the mound of Semiramis,) was reduced by being
divided into several governments. Anciently, the kings did
not govern Zela as a city, but regarded it as a temple of the
Persian gods ; the priest was the director of everything re-
lating to its administration. It was inhabited by a multitude
of sacred menials, by the priest, who possessed great wealth,
and by his numerous attendants ; the sacred territory was
under the authority of the priest, and it was his own property.
Pompey added many provinces to Zelitis, and gave the name
of city to Zela, as well as to Megalopolis. He formed Zelitis,
Culupene, and Camisene, into one district. The two latter
bordered upon the Lesser Armenia, and upon Laviansene.
Fossile salt was found in them, and there was an ancient
fortress called Camisa, at present in ruins. The Roman go-
vernors who next succeeded assigned one portion of these two
governments to the priests of Comana, another to the priest of
Zela, and another to Ateporix, a chief of the family of the
tetrarchs of Galatia ; upon his death, this portion, which was
not large, became subject to the Romans under the name of a
province. This little state is a political body of itself, Carana^
being united with it as a colony, and hence the district has the
name of Caranitis. The other parts are in the possession of
Pythodoris, and Dyteutus.

38. There remain to be described the parts of Pontus,
situated between this country and the districts of Amisus, and
Sinope, extending towards Cappadocia, the Galatians, and the
Paphlagonians.

Next to the territory of the Amiseni is Phazemonitis,^

* This district is at the foot of the mountains which separated the
Roman from the Persian Armenia. Carana (now Erzum, Erzerum, or
Garen) was the capital of this district. It was afterwards called Theo-
dosiopolis, which name was given to it in honour of the Emperor Theo-
dosius the Younger by Anatolius his general in the East, a. d. 416. It
was for a long time subject to the Byzantine emperors, who considered it
the most important fortress of Armenia. About the middle of the 11th
century it received the name of Arze-el-Rum, contracted into Arzrum or
Erzrum. It owed its name to the circumstance, that when Arzek was
taken by the Seljuk Turks, a. d. 1049, the inhabitants of that place, which
from its long subjection to the Romans had received the epithet of Rum,
retired to Theodosiopolis, and gave it the name of their former abode.
Smith.

» On the S. W. of the ridge of Tauschan Dagh.

B. XII. C. III.

PONTUS. 311

which extends as ftir as the Halys, and which Pompey called
Neapolitis. He raised the village Phazemon to the rank of a
city, and increasing its extent gave to it the name of Nea-
polis.^ The northern side of this tract is bounded by the Ga-
zelonitis, and by the country of the Amiseni ; the western side
by the Halys ; the eastern by Phanaroea ; the remainder by
the territory of Amasis, my native country, which surpasses all
the rest in extent and fertility.

The part of Phazemonitis towards Phanaroea is occupied by
a lake, sea-like in magnitude, called Stiphane,^ which abounds
with fish, and has around it a large range of pasture adapted
to all kinds of animals. Close upon it is a strong fortress,
Cizari, [Icizari,] at present deserted, and near it a royal seat
in ruins. The rest of the country in general is bare, but pro-
duces corn.

Above the district of Amasis are the hot springs ^ of the
Phazemonit^e, highly salubrious, and the Sagylium,'^ a strong-
hold situated on a lofty perpendicular hill, stretching upwards
and terminating in a sharp peak. In this fortress is a reser-
voir well supplied with water, which is at present neglected,
but was useful, on many occasions, to the kings. Here the
sons of Pharnaces the king captured and put to death Arsaces,
who was governing without the authority of the Roman ge-
nerals, and endeavouring to produce a revolution in the state.
The fortress was taken by Polemo and Lycomedes, both of
them kings, by famine and not by storm. Arsaces, being pre-
vented from escaping into the plains, fled to the mountains ^
without provisions. There he found the wells choked up with
large pieces of rock. This had been done by order of Pompey,
who had directed the fortresses to be demolished, and to leave
nothing in them that could be serviceable to robbers, who
might use them as places of refuge. Such was the settlement
of the Phazemonitis made by Pompey. Those who came af-
terwards divided this district among various kings.

39. My native city, Amaseia, lies in a deep and extensive
valley, through which runs the river Iris.^ It is indebted to
nature and art for its admirable position and construction. It

^ Mersivan. The text is corrupt. Groskurd's emendation is followed
in the translation.
2 Ladik-Gol. ' Kawsa. * Ijan (Tauschan) Kalessi.

* Tusanlu-su, a branch of the leschil Irmak.

312 STRABO. Casaub. 561.

answers the double purpose of a city and a fortress. It is a
high rock, precipitous on all sides, descending rapidly down
to the river : on the margin of the river, where the city stands,
is a wall, and a wall also which ascends on each side of the
city to the peaks, of which there are two, united by nature, and
completely fortified with towers. In this circuit of the wall
are the palace, and the monuments of the kings. The peaks
are connected together by a very narrow ridge, in height five
or six stadia on each side, as you ascend from the banks
of the river, and from the suburbs. From the ridge to the
peaks there remains another sharp ascent of a stadium in length,
which defies the attacks of an enemy. Within the rock are
reservoirs of water, the supply from which the inhabitants
cannot be deprived of, as two channels are cut, one in the
direction of the river, the other of the ridge. Two bridges
are built over the river, one leading from the city to the sub-
urbs, the other from the suburbs to the country beyond ; for
near this bridge the mountain, which overhangs the rock, ter-
minates.

A valley extends from the river ; it is not very wide at its
commencement, but afterwards increases in breadth, and forms
the plain called the Chiliocomon (The Thousand Villages).
Next is the Diacopene, and the Pimolisene, the whole of which
is a fertile district extending to the Halys.

These are the northern parts of the country of the Ama-
senses, and are in length about 500 stadia. Then follows the
remainder, which is much longer, extending as far as Baba-
nomus, and the Ximene,^ which itself reaches to the Halys.
The breadth is reckoned from north to south, to the Zelitis
and the Greater Cappadocia, as far as the Trocmi.^ In
Ximene there is found fossile salt, (aXec, Hales,) from which
it is supposed the river had the name of Halys. There are
many ruined fortresses in my native country, and large tracts
of land made a desert by the Mithridatic war. The whole of
it, however, abounds with trees. It aiFords pasture for horses,
and is adapted to the subsistence of other animals ; the whole
of it is very habitable. Amaseia was given to the kings, but
at present it is a (Roman) province.

' West of Koseh Dagh.

^ Situated between the Kizil Irraak and the river Delidsche Irmak, a
tributary of the former.

B. XII. c. III. 9 40, 41. PONTUS. 313

40. There remains to be described the country within the
Halys, belonging to the province of Pontus, and situated about
the Olgassys,^ and contiguous to the Sinopic district. The 01-
gassys is a very lofty mountain, and difficult to be passed. The
Paphlagonians have erected temples in every part of this
mountain. The country around, the Blaene, and the Doma-
nltis, through which the river Amnias'^ runs, is sufficiently
fertile. Here it was that Mithridates Eupator entirely de-
stroyed^ the army of Nicomedes the Bithynian, not in person,
for he himself happened to be absent, but by his generals.
Nicomedes fled with a few followers, and escaped into his own
country, and thence sailed to Italy. Mithridates pursued him,
and made himself master of Bithynia as soon as he entered it,
and obtained possession of Asia as far as Caria and Lycia.
Here is situated Pompeiopolis,^ in which city is the San-
daracurgium,^ (or Sandaraca works,) it is not far distant
from Pimolisa, a royal fortress in ruins, from which the coun-
try on each side of the river is called Piraolisene. The San-
daracurgium is a mountain hollowed out by large trenches
made by workmen in the process of mining. The work is al-
ways carried on at the public charge, and slaves were em-
ployed in the mine who had been sold on account of their crimes.
Besides the great labour of the employment, the air is said to
be destructive of life, and scarcely endurable in consequence of
the strong odour issuing from the masses of mineral ; hence
the slaves are short-lived. The mining is frequently suspended
from its becoming unprofitable, for great expense is incurred
by the employment of more than two hundred workmen, whose
number is continually diminishing by disease and fatal ac-
cidents.

So much respecting Pontus.

41. Next to Pompeiopolis is the remainder of the inland
parts of Paphlagonia as far as Bithynia towards the west.
This tract, although small in extent, was governed, a little be-
fore our time, by several princes, but their race is extinct ; at
present it is in possession of the Romans. The parts border-
ing upon Bithynia are called Timonitis ; the country of Geza-

1 Alkas-Dagh.

^ Gok-Irmak, or Kostambul Tschai, flowing between the mountain
ridges. Jeralagoz-Dagh and Sarikawak-Dagh.

3 B. c. 88. * Tasch-Kopri. « Pliny, xxxiv. c. 18.

•314 STRABO. Casaub. 562.

torix, Marmolitis, Sanisene, and Potamia. There was also a
Cimiatene, in which was Cimiata, a strong fortress situated
at the foot of the mountainous range of the Olgassys. Mi-
thridates, surnamed Ctistes, (or the Founder,) made it his
head-quarters when engaged in the conquest of Pontus, and
his successors kept possession of it to the time of Mithridates
Eupator. The last king of Paphlagonia was Deiotarus/ son
of Castor, and surnamed Philadelphus, who possessed Gangra,^
containing the palace of Morzeus, a small town, and a fortress.

42. Eudoxus, without defining the spot, says, that fossil
fish 3 are found in Paphlagonia in dry ground, and in marshy
ground also about the lake Ascanius,'' which is below Cius,
but he gives no clear information on the subject.

We have described Paphlagonia bordering upon Pontus;
and as the Bithynians border upon the Paphlagonians to-
wards the west, we shall endeavour to describe this region
also. We shall then set out again from the Bithynians and
the Paphlagonians, and describe the parts of the country next
to these nations lying towards the south ; they extend as far
as the Taurus, and are parallel to Pontus and Cappadocia ;
for some order and division of this kind are suggested by the
nature of the places.

CHAPTER IV.

1. BiTHYNiA is bounded on the east by the Paphlagonians*
Mariandyni, and by some tribes of the Epicteti ; on the north
by the line of the sea-coast of the Euxine, extending from the
mouth of the Sangarius^ to the straits at Byzantium and Chal-
cedon ; on the west by the Propontis ; on the south by Mysia
and Phrygia Epictetus, as it is called, which has the name also
of Hellespontic Phrygia.

^ Great-grandson of Dei'otarus I.

* According to Alexander Polyhistor, the town was built by a goatherd,
who had found one of his goats straying there, but this is probably a mere
philological speculation, gangra signifying " a goat" in the Paphlagonian
language. In ecclesiastical writers it is often mentioned as the metro-
politan see of Paphlagonia. The orchards of this town were celebrated
for their apples. Athen. iii.— Smith.

' Book iv. c. i. § 6. Athen. b. viii. "» Isnik Gol.

* Sakaria.

B. xii. c. IV. § 3. BITHYNIA. 315

2. Here upon the mouth of the Pontus is situated Clial-
cedon, founded by the Megareans,' the village Chrysopolis, and
the Chalcedonian temple. In the country a little above the
sea-coast is a fountain, Azaritia, (Azaretia?) which breeds
small crocodiles.

Next follows the coast of the Chalcedonians, the bay of
Astacus,^ as it is called, which is a part of the Propontis.

Here Nicomedia^ is situated, bearing the name of one of
the Bithynian kings by whom it was founded. Many kings
however have taken the same name, as the Ptolemies, on ac-
count of the fame of the first person who bore it.

On the same bay was Astacus a city founded by Megareans
and Athenians ; it was afterwards again colonized by Doedal-
sus. The bay had its name from the city. It w^as razed by
Lysimachus. The founder of Nicomedia transferred its in-
habitants to the latter city.

3. There is another bay'* continuous with that of Astacus,
which advances further towards the east, and where is situ-
ated Prusias,^ formerly called Cius. Philip, the son of De-
metrius, and father of Perseus, gave it to Prusias, son of
Zelas, who had assisted him in destroying both this and
Myrleia,^ a neighbouring city, and also situated near Prusa.
He rebuilt them from their ruins, and called the city Cius
Prusias, after his own name, and Myrleia he called Apameia,
after that of his wife. This is the Prusias who received
Hannibal, (who took refuge with him hither after the de-
feat of Antiochus,) and retired from Phrygia' on the Hel-
lespont, according to agreement with the Attalici.^ This
country was formerly called Lesser Phrygia, but by the Atta-
lici Phrygia Epictetus.^ Above Prusias is a mountain which
is called Arganthonius.^^ Here is the scene of the fable of
Hylas, one of the companions of Hercules in the ship Argo,
who, having disembarked in order to obtain water for the
vessel, was carried away by nymphs. Cius, as the story
goes, was a friend and companion of Hercules ; on his return
from Colchis, he settled there and founded the city which
bears his name. At the present time a festival called Orei-

^ B. vii. c. vi. § 2. ' G. of Ismid. ' Ismid or Iskimid.

* B. of Gemlik. « Brusa. « Mudania.

^ Livy, xxxviii. 39. * The kings of Pergamus. " The Acquired.

^0 The ridge of Katerlu Dagh and Samanlu Dagh.

316 STRABO. Casaub.564.

basia, is celebrated by the Prusienses, who wander about the
mountains and woods, a rebel rout, calling on Hylas by name,
as though in search of him.

The Prusienses having shown a friendly disposition towards
the Romans in their administration of public affairs, obtained
their freedom. But the Apamies were obliged to admit a
Roman colony.

Prusa, situated below the Mysian Olympus, on the borders
of the Phrygians and the Mysians, is a well-governed city ;
it was founded by Cyrus, ^ who made war against Croesus.

4. It is difficult to define the boundaries of the Bithynians,
Mysians, Phrygians, of the Doliones about Cyzicus, and of the _
Mygdones and Troes ; it is generally admitted that each of
these tribes ought to be placed apart from the other. A pro-
verbial saying is applied to the Phrygians and Mysians,

" The boundaries of the Mysi and Phryges are apart from one another,"
but it is difficult to define them respectively. The reason is
this ; strangers who came into the country were soldiers and
barbarians ; they had no fixed settlement in the country of
which they obtained possession, but were, for the most part,
wanderers, expelling others from their territory, and being ex-
pelled themselves. All these nations might be supposed to be
Thracians, because Thracians occupy the country on the other
side, and because they do not differ much from one another.

5. But as far as we are able to conjecture, we may place
Mysia between Bithynia and the mouth of the ^sepus, con-
tiguous to the sea, and nearly along the whole of Olympus.
Around it, in the interior, is the Epictetus, nowhere reaching
the sea, and extending as far as the eastern parts of the Asca-
nian lake and district, for both bear the same name. Part of
this territory was Phrygian, and part Mysian ; the Phrygian
was further distant from Troy ; and so we must understand
the words of the poet^, when he says,

" Phorcys, and the god-like Ascanius, were the leaders of the Phryges
far from Ascania,"

that is, the Phrygian Ascania ; for the other, the Mysian
Ascania, was nearer to the present Nicasa, which he mentions,
when he says,

1 In the text, Prusias. The translation follows the suggestion of
Kramer.

2 II. ii. 862.

B. XII. c. IV. § 6, 7. BITHYNIA. 317

" Palmys, Ascanius, and Morys, sons of Hippotion, the leader of the
Mysi, fighting in close combat, who came from the fertile soil of Ascania,
as auxiliaries."*

It is not then surprising that he should speak of an Asca-
nius, a leader of the Phrygians, who came from Ascania, and
of an Ascanius, a leader of the Mysians, coming also from
Ascania, for there is much repetition of names derived from
rivers, lakes, and places.

6. The poet himself assigns the ^sepus as the boundary of
the Mysians, for after having described the country above
Ilium, and lying along the foot of the mountains subject to
^neas, and which he calls Dardania, he places next towards
the north Lycia, which was subject to Pandarus, and where
Zeleia ^ was situated ; he says,

" They who inhabited Zeleia, at the very foot of Ida, Aphneii Trojans,
who drink of the dark stream of ^sepus ; " ^

below Zeleia, towards the sea, on this side"of -^sepus, lies the
plain of Adrasteia, and Tereia, Pitya, and in general the pre-
sent district of Cyzicene near Priapus,^ which he afterwards
describes. He then returns again to the parts towards the east,
and to those lying above, by which he shows that he con-
sidered the country as far as the jEsepus the northern and
eastern boundary of the Troad. Next to the Troad are My-
sia and Olympus.^ Ancient tradition then suggests some
such disposition of these nations. But the present changes
have produced many differences in consequence of the con-
tinual succession of governors of the country, who confound-
ed together people and districts, and separated others. The
Phrygians and Mysians were masters of the country after the
capture of Troy ; afterwards the Lydians ; then the ^olians
and lonians ; next, the Persians and Macedonians ; lastly, the
Romans, under whose government most of the tribes have lost
even their languages and names, in consequence of a new
partition of the country having been made. It will be proper
to take this into consideration when we describe its present
state, at the same time showing a due regard to antiquity.

7. In the inland parts of Bithynia is Bithynium,^ situated
above Tieium,' and to which belongs the country about Salon,

1 II. xiii. 792. 2 Sarakoi. ' II. ii. 824.

* Karabogha. . * Keschisch-Dagh.

* Claudiopolis, now Boli. ' Tilijos.

318 STRABO. Casaub. 665.

affording the best pasturage for cattle, whence comes the cheese
of Salon. Nicsea,^ the capital of Bithynia, is situated on the
Ascanian lake. It is surrounded by a very large and very
fertile plain, which in the summer is not very healthy. Its
first founder was Antigonus, the son of PhiHp, who called it
Antigonia. It was then rebuilt by Lysiraachus, who changed
its name to that of his wife Nicaea. She was the daughter of
Antipater. The city is situated in a plain. Its shape is
quadrangular, eleven stadia in circuit. It has four gates. Its
streets are divided at right angles, so that the four gates may
be seen from a single stone, set up in the middle of the Gym-
nasium. A little above the Ascanian lake is Otrcea, a small
town situated just on the borders of Bithynia towards the east.
It is conjectured that Otroea was so called from Otreus.

8. That Bithynia was a colony of the Mysians, first Scylax
of Caryanda will testify, who says that Phrygians and My-
sians dwell around the Ascanian lake. The next witness is
Dionysius, who composed a work on " the foundation of cities."
He says that the straits at Chalcedon, and Byzantium, which
are now called the Thracian, were formerly called the Mysian
Bosporus. Some person might allege this as a proof that the
Mysians were Thracians ; and Euphorio says,

"by the waters of the Mysian Ascanius ;"

and thus also Alexander the ^tolian,

" who have their dwellings near the Ascanian waters, on the margin of the
Ascanian lake, where Dolion dwelt, the son of Silenus and of Melia."

These authors testify the same thing, because the Ascanian
lake is found in no other siuation but this.

9. Men distinguished for their learning, natives of Bithynia,
were Xenocrates the philosopher, Dionysius the dialectician,
Hipparchus, Theodosius and his sons the mathematicians,
Cleophanes the rhetorician of Myrleia, and Asclepiades the
physician of Prusa.^

' Isnik. The Turkish name is a contraction of elg Ni/catav, as Ismir,
Smyrna, is a contraction of tig 'Sfivpvtjv, Istambol, Constantinople, of eic
rfjv iroXiv, Stance, Cos, of dg rr/v Kw.

'^ Xenocrates, one of the most distinguished disciples of Plato, was of
Chalcedon. Dionysius the dialectician is probably the same as Dionysius
of Heracleia, who abandoned the Stoics to join the sect of Epicurus.
Hipparchus, the first and greatest of Greek astronomers, (b. c. 160 — 145,)
was of Nicaea. So also was Diophanes, quoted by Varro and Columella,

B. xii. c. V. ^ 1. GALATIA. 3 1 9

10. To the south of the Bithynians are the Mysians about
Olympus (whom some writers call Bithyni Olympeni, and
others Hellespontii) and Phrygia upon the Hellespont. To the
south of the Paphlagonians are the Galatians, and still further
to the south of both these nations are the Greater Phrygia,
and Lycaonia, extending as far as the Cilician and Pisidian
Taurus. But since the parts continuous with Paphlagonia ad-
join Pontus, Cappadocia, and the nations which we have just
described, it may be proper first to give an account of the
parts in the neighbourhood of these nations, and then proceed
to a description of the places next in order.

CHAPTER V.

1. To the south of the Paphlagonians are the Galatians, of
whom there are three tribes ; two of them, the Trocmi and
the Tolistobogii, have their names from their chiefs ; the third,
the Tectosages, from the tribe of that name in Celtica. The
Galatians took possession of this country after wandering about
for a long period, and overrunning the country subject to the
Attalic and the Bithynian kings, until they received by a
voluntary cession the present Galatia, or Gallo-Graecia, as it is
called. Leonnorius seems to have been the chief leader of these
people when they passed over into Asia. There were three
nations that spoke the same language, and in no respect differ-
ed from one another. Each of them was divided into four
portions called tetrarchies, and had its own tetrarch, its own
judge, and one superintendent of the army, all of whom were
under the control of the tetrarch, and two subordinate super-

as the abbreviator of the twenty books on Agriculture by Mago, in the
Punic language. Suidas speaks of Theodosius, a distinguished mathe-
matician, who, according to Vossius, may be here meant. A treatise of his
" on Spherics " still exists, and was printed in Paris in 1558. Of Cleo-
phanes of Myrleia little is known, Strabo mentions also a grammarian,
Asclepiades of Myrleia, in b. iii. c. iv. § 19. To these great names may be
added as of Bithynian origin, but subsequent to the time of Strabo, Dion
Chrysostom, one of the most eminent among Greek rhetoricians and
sophists; he was born at Nicomedia, and died about a. d. 117. Arrian,
the author of " India," and the "Anabasis" (the Asiatic expedition) " of
Alexander," was also born at Nicomedia towards the end of a. d. 100.

320

STRABO. Casaub. 567.

intendents of the army. The Council of the twelve Tetrarchs
consisted of three hundred persons, who assembled at a place
called the Dry ne me turn.' The council determined causes rela-
tive to murder, the others were decided by the tetrarchs and
the judges. Such, anciently, was the political constitution of
Galatia ; but, in our time, the government was in the hands of
three chiefs, then of two, and at last it was administered by
Deiotarus, who was succeeded by Amyntas. At present, the
Romans possess this as well as all the country which was sub-
ject to Amyntas, and have reduced it into one province.

2. The Trocmi occupy the parts near Pontus and Cappa-
docia, which are the best which the Galatians possess. They
have three walled fortresses, Tavium, a mart for the people in
that quarter, where there is a colossal statue of Jupiter in brass,
and a grove, which is used as a place of refuge ; Mithridatium,
which Pompey gave to Bogodiatarus, (Deiotarus?) having
separated it from the kingdom of Pontus ; and thirdly, Danala^
where Pompey, when he was about to leave the country to
celebrate his triumph, met LucuUus and delivered over to him
as his successor the command of the war.

This is the country which the Trocmi possess.

The Tectosages occupy the parts towards the greater
Phrygia near Pessinus,^ and the Orcaorci. They had the
fortress Ancyra,^ of the same name as the small Phrygian
city towards Lydia near Blaudus.'* The Tolistobogii border
upon the Bithynians, and Phrygia Epictetus, as it is called.
They possess the fortresses Blucium, (Luceium,) which was the
royal seat of Deiotarus, and Peium, which was his treasure-hold.

3. Pessinus is the largest mart of any in that quarter. It
contains a temple of the Mother of the Gods, held in the
highest veneration. The goddess is called Agdistis. The
priests anciently were a sort of sovereigns, and derived a large
revenue from their office. At present their consequence is
much diminished, but the mart still subsists. The sacred
enclosure was adorned with fitting magnificence by the Attalic
kings,^ with a temple, and porticos of marble. The Romans

* Probably a grove.

' Bala Hissar, to the south of Siwri-Hissar; between these two places
is Mt. Dindymus, Gunescth-Dagh.

^ On the west of the lake Simau. * Suleimanli,

5 The kings of Pergamus.

B. XII. c. VI. § 1. LYCAONIA. 321

gave importance to the temple by sending for the statue of the
goddess from thence according to the oracle of the Sibyl, as
they had sent for that of Asclepius from Epidaurus.

The mountain Dindymus is situated above the city; from
Dindymus comes Dindymene, as from Cybela, Cybele. Near
it runs the river Sangarius, and on its banks are the ancient
dwellings of the Phrygians, of Midas, and of Gordius before
his time, and of some others, which do not preserve the
vestiges of cities, but are villages a little larger than the rest.
Such is Gordium,^ and Gorbeus (Gordeus), the royal seat
of Castor, son of Saocondarius, (Saocondarus ?) in which he
was put to death by his father-in-law, Deiotarus, who there
also murdered his own daughter. Deiotarus razed the fortress,
and destroyed tlie greater part of the settlement.

4. Next to Galatia towards the south is the lake Tatta,^
lying parallel to that part of the Greater Cappadocia which
is near the Morimeni. It belongs to the Greater Phrygia, as
well as the country continuous with this, and extending as
far as the Taurus, and of which Amyntas possessed the great-
est part. Tatta is a natural salt-pan. The water so readily
makes a deposit around everything immersed in it, that upon
letting down wreaths formed of rope, chaplets of salt are drawn
up. If birds touch the surface of the water with their wings,
they immediately fall down in consequence of the concretion
of the salt upon them, and are thus taken.

CHAPTER VX.

1. Such is the description of Tatta. The places around
Orcaorci, Pitnisus and the mountainous plains of Lycaonia,
are cold and bare, affording pasture only for wild asses ; there
is a great scarcity of water, but wherever it is found the wells
are very deep, as at Soatra, where it is even sold. Soatra is
a village city near Garsabora (Garsaura?). Although the
country is ill supplied with water, it is surprisingly well
adapted for feeding sheep, but the wool is coarse. Some
persons have acquired very great wealth by these flocks alone.
Amyntas had above three hundred flocks of sheep in these
1 Juliopolis. 2 Tuz-Tscholli.

VOL. II. Y

S22 STRABO. Casaub. 568.

parts. In this district there are two lakes, the greater Coralis,
the smaller Trogitis. Somewhere here is Iconium,^ a small
town, well built, about which is a more fertile tract of land
than the pastures for the wild asses before mentioned. Polemo
possessed this place.

Here the Taurus approaches this country, separating Cap-
padocia and Lycaonia from Cilicia Tracheia. It is the bound-
ary of the Lycaonians and Cappadocians, between Coropassus,
a village of the Lycaonians, and Gareathyra (Garsaura), a
small town of the Cappadocians. The distance between these
fortressess is about 120 stadia.

2. To Lycaonia belongs Isaurica, near the Taurus, in which
are the Isaura, two villages of the same name, one of which is
surnamed Palasa, or the Old, the other [the New], the latter is
well fortified.^ There were many other villages dependent
upon these. They are all of them, however, the dwellings of
robbers. They occasioned much trouble to the Romans, and
to Publius Servilius, surnamed Isauricus, with whom I was
acquainted ; he subjected these places to the Romans, and
destroyed also many of the strong-holds of the pirates, situated
upon the sea.

3. Derbe,^ the royal seat of the tyrant Antipater, surnamed
Derbaetes, is on the side of the Isaurian territory close upon
Cappadocia. Laranda'* also belonged to Antipater. In my
time Amyntas attacked and killed Antipater Derbaetes, and
got possession of the Isaura and of Derbe. The Romans
gave him the Isaura where he built a palace for himself, after
having destroyed Isauria Palsea (the Old). He began to build
in the same place a new wall, but before its completion he was
killed by the Cilicians in an ambuscade, when invading the
country of the Homonadeis.

4. For being in possession of Antiocheia near Pisidia, and
the country as far as Apollonias,^ near Apameia Cibotus,^ some
parts of the Paroreia, and Lycaonia, he attempted to exter-
minate the Cilicians and Pisidians, who descended from the
Taurus and overran this district, which belonged to the
Phrygians and Cilicians (Lycaonians). He razed also many

' Konia. ^ Meineke's correction,

' Its position is uncertain, probably Divle, to the S. of the Lake Ak-Gol.
See Smith, art. Derbe.

* Caraman. * Tschol-Abad. * Aphiom Kara Hissar.

B. XII. c. VII. § 1. PISIDIA. 323

fortresses, which before this time were considered impregna-
ble, among which was Cremna, but he did not attempt to take
by storm Sandalium, situated between Cremna and Saga-
lassus.

5. Cremna is occupied by a Roman colony.

Sagalassus is under the command of the same Roman go-
vernor, to whom all the kingdom of Amyntas is subject. It
is distant from Apameia a day's journey, having a descent of
nearly 30 stadia from the fortress. It has the name also of
Selgessus. It was taken by Alexander.

Amyntas made himself master of Cremna and passed into
the country of the Homonadeis, who were supposed to be the
most difficult to reduce of all the tribes. He had already got
into his power most of their strong-holds, and had killed the
tyrant himself^ when he was taken prisoner by an artifice of
the wife of the tyrant, whom he had killed, and was put to
death by the people. Cyrinius (Quirinus)^ reduced them by
famine and took four thousand men prisoners, whom he settled
as inhabitants in the neighbouring cities, but he left no per-
son in the country in the prime of life.

Among the heights of Taurus, and in the midst of rocks
and precipices for the most part inaccessible, is a hollow and
fertile plain divided into several valleys. The inhabitants
cultivate this plain, but live among the overhanging heights
of the mountains, or in caves. They are for the most part
armed, and accustomed to make incursions into the country of
other tribes, their own being protected by mountains, which
serve as a wall.

CHAPTER VII.

1. Contiguous to these, among other tribes of the Pisidians,
are the Selgeis, the most considerable tribe of the nation.

The greater part of the Pisidians occupy the summits of
Taurus, but some tribes situated above Side^ and Aspen-

^ Sulpitius Quirinus. The Cyrenius " governor of Syria "in St. Luke.
Tacitus (Ann. B. iii. c, 48) speaks of his expedition against the Ho-
monadeis, and Josephus of his arrival in Syria, where he was sent with
Coponius by Augustus.

2 Eske-Adatia.

Y 2

324 STRABO. Casaub. 570.

dus,^ which are Pamphylian cities, occupy heights, all of which
are planted with olives. The parts above these, a mountain-
ous country, are occupied by the Catennenses, who border upon
the Selgeis and the Homonadeis. The Sagalasseis occupy
the parts within the Taurus towards Milyas.

2. Artemidorus says that Selge, Sagalassus, Petnelissus,
Adada, Tymbrias, Cremna, Pityassus, (Tityassus ?) Amblada,
Anabura, Sinda, Aarassus, Tarbassus, Termessus, are cities of
the Pisidians. Of these some are entirely among the moun-
tains, others extend on each side even as far as the country at
the foot of the mountains, and reach to Pamphylia and Milyas,
and border on Phrygians, Lydians, and Carians, all of whom
are disposed to peace, although situated to the north.^

The Pamphylians, who partake much of the character of
the Cilician nation, do not altogether abstain from predatory
enterprises, nor permit the people on the confines to live in
peace, although they occupy the southern parts of the country
at the foot of Taurus.

On the confines of Phrygia and Caria, are Tabae,^ Sinda,
and Amblada, whence is procured the Amblada wine, which
is used in diet prescribed for the sick.

3. All the rest of the mountain tribes of the Pisidians
whom I have spoken of are divided into states governed by
tyrants, and follow like the Cilicians a predatory mode of
life. It is said that anciently some of the Leleges, a wander-
ing people, were intermixed with them, and from the similar-
ity of their habits and manners settled there.

Selge ^ had the rank of a city from the first when founded by
the Lacedsemonians, but at a still earlier period by Calchas.
Latterly it has maintained its condition and flourished in con-
sequence of its excellent constitution and government, so that
at one time it had a population of 20,000 persons. The place
deserves admiration from the advantages which nature has
bestowed upon it. Among the summits of Taurus is a very
fertile tract capable of maintaining many thousand inhabit-
ants. Many spots produce the olive and excellent vines, and
afford abundant pasture for animals of all kinds. Above and

» Balkesi.

2 To the north of the chain of Taurus which commenced at the pro-
montory Trogilium opposite Samos.

» Tabas. * Surk.

B. XII. c. Yii. § 3, PISIDIA. 325

all around are forests containing trees of various sorts. The
styrax is found here in great abundance, a tree not large but
straight in its growth. Javelins, similar to those of the
cornel tree, are made of the wood of this tree. There is bred
in the trunk of the styrax tree, a worm, which eats through
the timber to the surface, and throws out raspings like bran, or
saw-dust, a heap of which is collected at the root. After-
wards a liquid distils which readily concretes into a mass
like gum. A part of this liquid descends upon and mixes
with the raspings at the root of the tree, and with earth ; a
portion of it acquires consistence on the surface of the mass,
and remains pure. That portion which flows along the sur-
face of the trunk of the tree, and concretes, is also pure. A
mixture is made of the impure part, which is a combination of
wood-dust and earth ; this has more odour than the pure styrax,
but is inferior to it in its other properties. This is not com-
monly known. It is used for incense in large quantities by
superstitious worshippers of the gods.

The Selgic iris ^ also, and the unguent which is made from
it, are in great esteem. There are few approaches about the
city, and the mountainous country of the Selgeis, which
abounds with precipices and ravines, formed among other
rivers by the Eurymedon 2 and the Cestrus,^ which de-
scend from the Selgic mountains, and discharge themselves
into the Pamphylian Sea. There are bridges on the roads.
From the strength and security of their position the Sel-
geis were never at any time, nor on any single occasion, sub-
ject to any other people, but enjoyed unmolested the produce
of their country, with the exception of that part situated be-
low them in Pamphylia, and that within the Taurus, for which
they were carrying on a continual warfare with the kings.

Their position with respect to the Romans was that they
possessed this tract on certain conditions. They sent ambassa-
dors to Alexander and offered to receive his commands in the
character of friends, but at present they are altogether subject
to the Romans, and are included in what was formerly the
kingdom of Amyntas.

' Pliny, b. xv. c. 7, and b. xii. c. 4. ' Kopru-Su.

3 Ak-Su.

326 STRABO. Casaub, 571.

CHAPTER VIII.

1. The people called Mysians, and Phrygians, who live
around the so-called Mysian Olympus, border upon the Bi-
thynians to the south. Each of these nations is divided into
two parts. One is called the Greater Phrygia, of which
Midas was king. A part of it was occupied by the Galatians.
The other is the Lesser, or Phrygia on the Hellespont, or
Phrygia around Olympus, and is also called Epictetus.

Mysia is also divided into two parts ; Olympic Mysia,
which is continuous with Bithynia, and with the Epictetus,
(which, Artemidorus says, was inhabited by the Mysians be-
yond the Danube,) and the part around the Caicus,^ and the
Pergamene ^ as far as Teuthrania, and the mouths of the river.

2. This country, however, as we have frequently observed,
has undergone so many changes, that it is uncertain whether
the district around Sipylus,^ which the ancients called Phrygia,
were a part of the Greater or the Lesser Phrygia, from whence
Tantalus, Pelops, and Niobe were called Phrygians. What-
ever the explanation may be, tlie change is certain. For Per-
gamene and Elai'tis,"* through which country the Caicus passes,
and empties itself into the sea, and Teuthrania, situated be-
tween these two districts, where Teuthras lived, and Tele-
phus was brought up, lies between the Hellespont, and the
country about Sipylus, and Magnesia, which is at the foot of
the mountain, so that, as I have said, it is difficult

" To assign tlie confines of the Mysians and Phryges." —

3. The Lydians also, and the Maeones, whom Homer calls
Meones, are in some way confounded with these people
and with one another ; some authors say that they are the
same, others that they are different, nations. Add to this that
some writers regard the Mysians as Thracians, others as Ly-
dians, according to an ancient tradition, which has been pre-
served by Xanthus the Lydian, and by Menecrates of Elaea,
who assign as the origin of the name Mysians, that the
Lydians call the beech-tree (Oxya) Mysos, which grows in
great abundance near Olympus, where it is said deci-
mated persons^ were exposed, whose descendants are the

^ Bakyr-Tschai. " fhe district around Bergama. ^ Sipuli-Dagh.

* The district between Bergama and the sea.

5 Protheiis, who had led the Magnetes to Troy, upon his return from

B. XII. c. Till. § 4. MYSIA AND PHRYGIA. 327

later Mysians, and received their appellation from the Mysos,
or beech-tree growing in that country. The language also is
an evidence of this. It is a mixture of Lydian and Phrygian
words, for they lived some time in the neighbourhood of
Olympus. But when the Phrygians passed over from Thrace,
and put to death the chief of Troy and of the country near
it, they settled here, but the Mysians established themselves
above the sources of the Caicus near Lydia.

4. The confusion which has existed among the nations in
this district, and even the fertility of the country within the
Halys, particularly near the sea, have contributed to the in-
vention of fables of this sort. The richness of the country
provoked attacks, from various quarters, and at all times, of
tribes who came from the opposite coast, or neighbouring
people contended with one another for the possession of it.
Inroads and migrations took place chiefly about the period
of the Trojan war, and subsequently to that time, Barbarians
as well as Greeks showing an eagerness to get possession of
the territory of other nations. This disposition, however,
showed itself before the time of the Trojan war ; for there
existed then tribes of Pelasgi, Caucones, and Leleges, who are
said to have wandered, anciently, over various parts of Europe.
The poet represents them as assisting the Trojans, but not as
coming from the opposite coast. - The accounts respecting the
Phrygians and the Mysians are more ancient than the Trojan
times.

Two tribes bearing the name of Lycians, lead us to suppose
that they are the same race ; either the Trojan Lycians sent
colonies to the Carians, or the Carian Lycians to the Trojans.
Perhaps the same may be the case with the Cilicians, for they
also are divided into two tribes ; but we have not the same
evidence that the present Cilicians existed before the Trojan
times. Telephus may be supposed to have come with his
mother from Arcadia ; by her marriage with Teuthras, (who
had received them as his guests,) Telephus was admitted into the

that expedition, and in compliance with a vow which he had made to
Apollo, selected every tenth man and sent them to the temple at Delphi.
These Magnetes, for some reason, abandoned the temple and embarked
for Crete ; from thence they passed into Asia, accompanied by some
Cretans, and founded Magnesia near the Mseander, B. xiv. c. i. § 11.

328 STRABO. Casaub. 572.

family of Teuthras, was reputed to be his son, and succeeded
to the kingdom of the Mysians.

5. " The Carians, who were formerly islanders, and Le-
leges," it is said, " settled on the continent with the assistance
of the Cretans. They built Miletus, of which the founder was
Sarpedon from Miletus in Crete. They settled the colony
of Termilae in the present Lycia, but, according to Herodotus,^
these people were a colony from Crete under the conduct of
Sarpedon, brother of Minos and Rhadamanthus, who gave the
name of Termilae to the people formerly called Milyae, and
still more anciently Solymi ; when, however, Lycus the son of
Pandion arrived, he called them Lycii after his own name."
This account shows that the Solymi and Lycians were the
same people, but the poet distinguishes them. He represents
Bellerophon setting out from Lycia, and

" fighting with the renowned Solymi." ^
He says Peisander (Isander ?), his son. Mars

" slew when fighting with the Solymi,"'
and speaks of Sarpedon as a native of Lycia.^

6. That the common prize, proposed to be obtained by the
conquerors, was the fertile country which I am describing, is
confirmed by many circumstances which happened both be-
fore and after the Trojan times. When even the Amazons
ventured to invade it, Priam and Bellerophon are said to have
undertaken an expedition against these women. Anciently
there were cities which bore the names of the Amazons. In
the Ilian plain there is a hill

"which men call Batieia, but the immortals, the tomb of tlie bounding
{rroXvaKapOfioio) Myrina,"

who, according to historians, was one of the Amazons, and
they found this conjecture on the epithet, for horses are said
to be EvaKapQiioL on account of their speed ; and she was called
iiokvaKapQfxoQ from the rapidity with which she drove the
chariot. Myrina therefore, the place, was named after the
Amazon. In the same manner the neighbouring islands
were invaded on account of their fertility ; among which were
Rhodes and Cos. That they were inhabited before the Tro-
jan times clearly appears from the testimony of Horner.^
1 Herod, i. 173 ; vii. 92. « II. vi. 184. 3 n. ^,-^^ 204.

* II. vi. 199. * II. ii. 655, 677.

B. XII. c. Tin. $7, 8. MYSIA AND PHRYGIA. 829

7. After the Trojan times, the migrations of Greeks and
of Treres, the inroads of Cimmerians and Lydians, after-
wards of Persians and Macedonians, and lastly of Gala-
tians, threw everything into confusion. An obscurity arose
not from these changes only, but from the disagreement be-
tween authors in their narration of the same events, and in
their description of the same persons ; for they called Trojans
Phrygians, like the Tragic poets ; and Lycians Carians, and
similarly in other instances. The Trojans who, from a small
beginning, increased so much in power that they became kings
of kings, furnished a motive to the poet and his interpret-
ers, for determining what country ought to be called Troy.
For the poet calls by the common name of Trojans all their
auxiliaries, as he calls their enemies Danai and Achaei. But
certainly we should not give the name of Troy to Paphla-
gonia, or to Caria, or to Lycia, which borders upon it. I
m£an when the poet says,

" the Trojans advanced with the clashing of armour and shouts," '
and where he speaks of their enemies,

"but the Achaei advanced silently, breathing forth warlike ardour,"^
and thus frequently in other passages.

We must endeavour, however, to distinguish as far as we are
able one nation from another, notwithstanding this uncer-
tainty. If anything relative to ancient history escapes my
notice, it must be pardoned, for this is not the province of
the geographer; my concern is with the present state of
people and places.

8. There are two mountains situated above the Propontis,
the Mysian Olympus^ and Ida.'* At the foot of Olympus is
Bithynia, and, contiguous to the mountain, between Ida and
the sea, is Troy.

We shall afterwards speak of Troy, and of the places con-
tinuous with it on the south. At present we shall give an
account of the places about Olympus, and of the adjoining
country as far as the Taurus, and parallel to the parts which
we have previously described.

The country lying around Olympus is not well inhabited.
On its heights are immense forests and strongholds, well adapt-

> II. iii. 2. » II. iii. 8. ' Keschisch Dagh.

* Kas-Dagh.

330 STRABO. Casaub. 574.

ed for the protection of robbers, who, being able to maintain
themselves there for any length of time, often set themselves
up as tyrants, as Cleon a captain of a band of robbers did in
my recollection.

9. Cleon was a native of the village Gordium, which he
afterwards enlarged, and erected into a city, giving it the
name of Juliopolis. His first retreat and head-quarters was
a place called Callydium, one of the strongest holds. He was
of service to Antony in attacking the soldiers who collected
money for Labienus, at the time that the latter occupied Asia,
and thus hindered the preparations which he was making for
his defence. In the Actian war he separated himself from
Antony and attached himself to the generals of Caesar ; he
was rewarded above his deserts, for in addition to what he re-
ceived from Antony he obtained power from Csesar, and ex-
changed the character of a freebooter for that of a petty
prince. He was priest of Jupiter Abrettenus, the Mysian
god, and a portion of the Morena was subject to him, which,
like Abrettena, is Mysian. He finally obtained the priest-
hood of Comana in Pontus, and went to take possession of it,
but died within a month after his arrival. He was carried
off by an acute disease, occasioned either by excessive repletion,
or, according to the 'account of those employed about the
temple, intlicted by the anger of the goddess. The story is
this. Within the circuit of the sacred enclosure is the dwelling
of the priest and priestess. Besides other sacred observances
relative to the temple, the purity of this enclosure is an
especial object of vigilance, by abstinence from eating swine's
flesh. The whole city, indeed, is bound to abstain from this
food, and swine are not permitted to enter it. Cleon, however,
immediately upon his arrival displayed his lawless disposition
and character by violating this custom, as if he had come
there not as a priest, but a polluter of sacred things.

10. The description of Olympus is as follows. Around
it, to the north, live Bithynians, Mygdonians, and Doli-
ones ; the rest is occupied by Mysians and Epicteti. The
tribes about Cyzicus ^ from ^sepus^ as far as Rhyndacus^ and
the lake Dascylitis,^ are called for the most part Doliones ;
those next to the Doliones, and extending as far as the terri-
tory of the Myrleani,^ are called Mygdones. Above the
* Artaki. ^ Satal-dere ? ^ Mualitsch-Tschai. * laskili. ^ Mudania.

B. XII. c. Till. § 11. MYSIA AND PHRYGIA. 331

Dascylitis are two large lakes, the Apolloniatis,^ and the Mile-
topolitis.^ Near the Dascylitis is the city Dascyliura, and on
the Miletopolitis, Miletopolis. Near a third lake is ApoUonia
on the Rhyndacus, as it is called. Most of these places belong
at present to the Cyziceni.

11. Cyzicus is an island^ in the Propontis, joined to the con-
tinent by two bridges. It is exceedingly fertile. It is about
500 stadia in circumference. There is a city of the same
name near the bridges, with two close harbours, and more
than two hundred docks for vessels. One part of the city is
in a plain, the other near the mountain which is called
Arcton-oros (or Bear-mountain). Above this is another
mountain, the Dindymus, with one peak, having on it a temple
founded by the Argonauts in honour of Dindymene, mother of
the gods. This city rivals in size, beauty, and in the ex-
cellent administration of affairs, both in peace and war, the
cities which hold the first rank in Asia. It appears to be
embellished in a manner similar to Rhodes, Massalia,"* and
ancient Carthage. I omit many details. There are three
architects, to whom is intrusted the care of the public edifices
and engines. The city has also three store-houses, one for
arms, one for engines, and one for corn. The Chalcidic earth
mixed with the corn prevents it from spoiling. The utility
of preserving it in this manner was proved in the Mithridatic
war. The king attacked the city unexpectedly with an army of
150,000 men and a large body of cavalry, and made himself
master of the opposite hill, which is called the hill of Adras-
teia, and of the suburb. He afterwards transferred his camp
to the neck of land above the city, blockaded it by land, and
attacked it by sea with four hundred ships. The Cyziceni
resisted all these attempts, and were even nearly capturing
the king in a subterraneous passage, by working a counter-
mine. He was, however, apprized of it, and escaped by re-
treating in time out of the excavation. LucuUus, the Roman
general, was able, though late, to send succours into the city
by night. Famine also came to the aid of the Cyziceni by
spreading among this large army. The king did not foresee
this, and after losing great numbers of his men went away.

• Loubadi. 2 Manijas.

' According to Pliny, b. v. c. 32, it was united to the mainland by
Alexander. * Marseilles.

332 STRABO. Casaub. 576.

The Romans respected the city, and to this present time it en-
joys freedom. A large territory belong-s to it, some part of
which it has held from the earliest times ; the rest was a gift
of the Romans. Of the Troad they possess the parts beyond
the ^sepus, namely, those about Zeleia and the plain of Adras-
teia ; a part of the lake Dascylitis belongs to them, the other part
belongs to the Byzantines. They also possess a large district near
the Dolionis, and the Mygdonis, extending as far as the lake
Miletopolitis, and the Apolloniatis. Through these countries
runs the river Rhyndacus, which has its source in the Azanitis.
Having received from Mysia Abrettene, among other rivers,
the Macestus,^ which comes from Ancyra^ in the Abaeitis,
it empties itself into the Propontis at the island Besbicus.^

In this island of the Cyziceni is the mountain Artace, well
wooded, and in front of it lies a small island of the same name ;
near it is the promontory Melas (or Black), as it is called,
which is met with in coasting from Cyzicus to Priapus.'^

12. To Phrygian Epictetus belong the Azani, and the cities
Nacoleia, Cotiaeium,^ Midiaeium, Dorylasum,^ and Cadi.'^ Some
persons assign Cadi to Mysia.

Mysia extends in the inland parts from Olympene to Perga-
mene, and to the plain of Caicus, as it is called ; so that it lies
between Ida and the Catacecaumene, which some place in
Mysia, others in Masonia.

13. Beyond the Epictetus to the south is the Greater Phry-
gia, leaving on the left Pessinus, and the parts about Orcaorci,
and Lycaonia, and on the right Maeones, Lydians, and Carians.
In the Epictetus are Phrygia Paroreia, and the country to-
wards Pisidia, and the parts about Amorium,^ Eumeneia,^ and
Synnada.^^ Next are Apameia Cibotus,^' and Laodiceia,*^ the
largest cities in Phrygia. Around them lie the towns [and
places], Aphrodisias, ^^ Colossae,^'* Themisonium, ^^ Sanaus,
Metropolis, ^6 Apollonias, and farther off than these, Peltae,
Tabeae, Eucarpia, and Lysias.

14. The Paroreia^' has a mountainous ridge extending from
east to west. Below it on either side stretches a large plain,

* Simau-Su. ^ Simau-Gol. ^ Imrali, or Kalo-limno.

* Karabogher. ^ Kiutahia. « Eski-Schehr.
^ Gedis. ' Hergan Kaleh. * Ischekli.

*• Afium-Karahissar. " Dinear. " lorghan-Ladik. '^ Geira.
'* Destroyed by an earthquake in the time of Nero, afterwards Konos.
" Teseni. '« Ballyk. " Sultan Dagh.

B. XII. c. Yiii. §■ 15. PHRYGIA. 833

cities are situated near the ridge, on the north side, Philome-
lium,^ on the south Antiocheia, surnamed Near Pisidia.^
The former lies entirely in the plain, the other is on a hill,
and occupied by a Roman colony. This was founded by the
Magnetes, who live near the Maeander. The Romans liberated
them from the dominion of the kings, when they delivered up
the rest of Asia within the Taurus to Eumenes. In this place
was established a priesthood of Men Arcaeus, having attached
to it a multitude of sacred attendants, and tracts of sacred
territory. It was abolished after the death of Amyntas by
those who were sent to settle the succession to his kingdom.

Synnada is not a large city. In front of it is a plain planted
with olives, about 60 stadia in extent. Beyond is Docimia, a
village, and the quarry of the Synnadic marble. This is the
name given to it by the Romans, but the people of the country
call it Docimite and Docimasan. At first the quarry produced
small masses, but at present, through the extravagance of the
Romans, pillars are obtained, consisting of a single stone and
of great size, approaching the alabastrite marble in variety
of colours ; although the distant carriage of such heavy loads
to the sea is difficult, yet both pillars and slabs of surprising
magnitude and beauty are conveyed to Rome.

15. Apameia is a large mart of Asia, properly so called,
and second in rank to Ephesus, for it is the common staple for
merchandise brought from Italy and from Greece. It is
built upon the mouth of the river Marsyas, which runs through
the middle of it, and has its commencement above the city ;
being carried down to the suburb with a strong and precipit-
ous current, it enters the Maeander,^ which receives also an-
other river, the Orgas, and traverses a level tract with a gentle
and unruffled stream. Here the Maeander becomes a large
river, and flows for some time through Phrygia ; it then
separates Caria and Lydia at the plain, as it is called, of the
Maeander, running in a direction excessively tortuous, so that
from the course of this river all windings are called Maeanders.
Towards its termination it runs through the part of Caria
occupied by the lonians ; the mouths by which it empties it-
self are between Miletus and Priene.* It rises in a hill called
Celagnae, on which was a city of the same name. Antiochus

J Ak Schehr. ^ lalobatsch. ^ Mender Tsehai.

* Samsun.

334 STRABO. Casaub. 578.

Soter transferred the inhabitants to the present Apameia, and
called the city after his mother Apama^ who was the daughter
of Artabazus. She was given in marriage to Seleucus Nica-
tor. Here is laid the scene of the fable of Olympus and
Marsyas, and of the contest between Marsyas and Apollo.
Above is situated a lake ^ on which grows a reed, which is
suited to the mouth-pieces of pipes. From this lake, it is said,
spring the Marsyas and the Maeander.

16. Laodiceia,^ formerly a small town, has increased in our
time, and in that of our ancestors, although it received great
injury when it was besieged by Mithridates Eupatorj the
fertility however of the soil and the prosperity of some of its
citizens have aggrandized it. First, Hiero embellished the city
with many offerings, and bequeathed to the people more than
2000 talents ; then Zeno the rhetorician, and his son Polemo,
were au ornament and support to it ; the latter was thought
by Antony, and afterwards by Augustus Cassar, worthy even
of tlie rank of king in consequence of his valiant and upright
conduct.

The country around L'aodiceia breeds excellent sheep, re-
markable not only for the softness of their wool, in which they
surpass the Milesian flocks, but for their dark or raven co-
lour. The Laodiceans derive a large revenue from them, as
the Colosseni do from their flocks, of a colour of the same
name.

Here the Caprus and the Lycus, a large river, enter the
Maeander. From the Lycus, a considerable river, Laodiceia has
the name of Laodiceia on the Lycus. Above the city is the
mountain Cadmus, from which the Lycus issues, and another
river of the same name as the mountain. The greater part of
its course is under-ground ; it then emerges, and unites with
other rivers, showing that the country abounds with caverns
and is liable to earthquakes. For of all countries Laodi-
ceia is very subject to earthquakes, as also the neighbouring
district Carura.

17. Carura^ is the boundary of Phrygia and Caria. It is

' The lake above Celsenae bore the name of Aulocrene or Pipe Foun-
tain, probably from the reeds which grew there. Pliny, b. v. c. 29.

^ Urumluk.

' The place is identified, by the hot springs about 12 miles from De-
nizli or Jenidscheh,

B. XII. c. VIII. § 18. PHRYGIA. 335

a village, where there are inns for the reception of travellers,
and springs of boiling water, some of which rise in the river
Maeander, and others on its banks. There is a stor

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Full text of "The geography of Strabo. Literally translated, with notes. The first six books by H.C. Hamilton, esq., the remainder by W. Falconer"

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